"Stealing Lincoln's Body" - History Channel (2009)

I’d always heard about the attempted abduction of President Lincoln’s body in 1876, but I have never found a book; or a film; which told the story behind it. It was; in effect; relegated to the back of my memory with the rest of the trivia. Then I saw this film.

Abraham Lincoln was the first President who dealt with the problem of counterfeiting currency in a meaningful way. Before the War Between the States; which was anything but “civil”; paper money was a convenience and minted by banks. If you lived near one of those banks; say in the same city; it was no problem to authenticate the bills. But for travelers it was a nightmare. Lincoln set up the Secret Service to combat this crime. His was also the first Presidency to have the motto “In God We Trust” appears on American currency; hard coin or paper.

The reason I mention the counterfeiters is that it was a group of such men who set about; in 1876; to steal Lincoln’s body from its tomb in Springfield, Illinois. The film traces the journey of Lincoln’s body from the moment he is shot at Ford’s theater in 1865 until he was finally permanently entombed in Springfield in 1901.

You read that right. While John Brown’s body was a Moldering in its Grave, Lincolns was stuck in an odyssey which could never have been invented; for the antics of man are greater than any fiction.  James Brown’s body has been in limbo since his death in 2006; but even his 8 year ordeal pales in comparison to what happened with Lincoln. Not wishing to ruin the film for you I will just give you a brief outline of what the film covers, leaving out the best parts.

Mary Todd Lincoln was too grief stricken to make the journey to the President’s funeral. She was actually holed up in the White House for about a month after her husband’s death, unable to leave.

Meantime the largest funeral procession ever undertaken in perhaps the history of the world was unfolding, with the Presidents funeral train traveling from Washington to New York. From there it would take a long route back to Illinois through just about every major stop on the line.

   

Each town had its own funeral procession; requiring that the coffin be removed from the train and paraded through streets and even exhibited in City Halls. New York was one of those places, where the body lay in state indoors at City Hall for 8 hours as almost half a million people attempted to pay their respects. Some towns actually held the ceremonies outdoors to accommodate the crowds.  There were 25 such stops made before the train arrived in Springfield.

It almost didn’t make it that far. Mrs. Lincoln, back in Washington, heard that the plans were for her husband to be buried in town when it arrived in Springfield. She wanted him buried at Oak Lawn Cemetery and if that was unacceptable to the “committee” which had decided upon this, then she would have the President buried in Chicago. The President was buried at Oak Lawn.

That should have been the end of the story. But it wasn’t. In 1876, amid the most contested election in the history of our country; 82% of Americans eligible to vote, did so. This was deemed by the conspirators as the perfect time to snatch the body; election night 1876. The hullabaloo surrounding the election results; which would not be resolved for weeks; pushed the story of the attempted abduction to the back pages of most newspapers; if they were reporting it at all.

One of the conspirators was an informer for the Secret Service and due to his presence in the gang the Service was alerted and arrived at the tomb earlier than the robbers themselves. They would wait for a signal from the informant before making the arrest. The local police were kept out of the affair altogether. When the signal was given there was a terrific gun fight and a chase through the woods, leading to the capture of some of the men. They were later tried for tampering with a body and sentenced to 1 year in prison. And that should have been the end of the story; but again, it wasn’t.

That was in 1876. For what happened over the next 25 years you will need to see the film or look it up. Suffice to say that Lincoln was disinterred 10 more times before he was finally allowed to sleep undisturbed. And when he was finally buried his pallbearers were 6 workmen, and the only witness present was a 13 year old boy.

Surrender at Appomattox - The Beginning of the End

This is one of the most popular posts from 2010. It has garnered about 9,000 "hits" and always nets me several thank you notes each year, presumably from students doing research into the Civil War. 

Until I moved to North Carolina I had a rather one sided picture of the Civil War. The reason it is still a contentious issue today is due to the fact that the war was never officially ended by a treaty between the two sides. There was simply a proclamation by President Johnson in 1866 that the war was over. And that lack of a treaty is at the very root of any discord which remains from the Civil War today.

I cannot think back to a time when I was unaware of the Civil War. The fact that the wounds of the war were still raw in half of our country was surely a contributing factor to this. I was about 7 when all the Centennial Observances began in full swing. To make matters even more confusing, in school we were taught only part of the story concerning the end of the Civil War.

Today marks the 149th Anniversary of General Robert E. Lee's surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia. It was there that Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia, which effectively ended the South's ability to wage war. But there never was a formal surrender by the Confederate Government. Neither treaty nor truce was ever called.

When I first moved down South I was very confused at the attitude that the War Between the States had never ended. So, I did as I usually do; I headed to the library. I was very surprised at all that I did not know.

General Grant, writing his memoirs with the aid of Mark Twain, aka Samuel Clemens, recalled the following conversation just prior to the signing of Lee's surrender;

"Lee soon mounted his horse, seeing who it was, and met me. We had there between the lines, sitting on horseback, a very pleasant conversation of over half an hour, in the course of which Lee said to me that the South was a big country and that we might have to march over it three or four times before the war entirely ended, but that we would now be able to do it as they could no longer resist us. He expressed it as his earnest hope, however, that we would not be called upon to cause more loss and sacrifice of life; but he could not foretell the result. I then suggested to General Lee that there was not a man in the Confederacy whose influence with the soldiery and the whole people was as great as his, and that if he would now advise the surrender of all armies I had no doubt his advice would be followed with alacrity. But Lee said that he could not do that “without consulting the President first. I knew there was no use to urge him to do anything against his ideas of what was right."

President Jefferson Davis refused to surrender the Confederacy, instead seeking to consolidate his forces west of the Mississippi. He was of the hope that they could establish the Confederacy in Texas. This was a misguided hope at best. Davis was captured in May enroute to Texas. He was then imprisoned under unduly harsh conditions and emerged a physically broken man. But he never signed the Loyalty Oath and never formally surrendered his government.

As a matter of fact, the last action of the Civil War took place up around the Arctic Circle on November 6th, 1865. The C.S.S. Shenandoah, under the Command of James Waddell and out of communication with land, continued conducting raids and seized 4 Yankee merchant vessels before being informed that the War was over. In June of 1865 the Shenandoah had captured two Yankee ships, and while aboard the Susan Abigail, Commander Waddell saw a San Francisco newspaper that stated the war was over. But it was not until they heard the news from a British ship that they gave up the cause.

At that point the Captain of the U.S.S. Donegal took the formal parole of the Shenandoah, and Commander Waddell elected to sail to England rather than the U.S. to avoid his crew being tried as raiders instead of being released as former soldiers. Some other Confederate ships had surrendered only after their crews were reclassified as "artillerymen", thus avoiding criminal trials for the crime of piracy.

The last ship of the Confederacy was then sailed over 9,000 miles to Liverpool, by Commander Waddell and presented to a Joint House of Parliament in 1866. He then simply walked away.

When the "Carpetbaggers" arrived to plunder the ruined Southern States, in direct opposition to Lincoln's plan of a gentle reunion, the stage was set for the violence and opposition to what the South called "the Army of Occupation." When that "Army" finally left in the 1870's, a backlash of "Jim Crow" laws became the norm and the Southern States entered upon a century of violence and segregation.

The fact that the War Between the States was never properly adjudicated, and the subsequent lack of any formal Instrument of Surrender being tendered, has left a hollowness in the "peace" that is often cited as an end to hostilities. The Union did, however, have the last word. In May of 1866, President Andrew Johnson simply proclaimed the War to be at an end.

Sadly, vestiges of that war remain unresolved to this very day. And the chief culprit of this "hollowness" in our national unity is, in my opinion, directly attributable to the lack of a formal ending of the hostilities.

"Lincoln's Code" by John Fabian Witt (2013)

When President Lincoln took office in March of 1861 he was faced with a conundrum unlike any of his predecessors had been before. The Civil War was really a revolution, and the Constitution made little, if any, provisions for such an occurrence. Consequently, Lincoln was faced with unknown territory in the prosecution of the war. This enigma was made very clear in the recent movie “Lincoln” by director Steven Spielberg. But where the movie merely scratches the surface of Lincoln’s problems with the Legislative branch of the government, this book goes much further, covering the questions of Habeas Corpus, as well as the controversial blockading of the Southern ports.

General Winfield Scott had tried to establish some sort of order during the War with Mexico in 1843, but his efforts were largely one sided and met with only limited success. At the same time, France and England were engaged in the Napoleonic conflicts and were trying to come up with an actual code of their own. It would be almost a century more before the Uniform Code of Military Justice would be written and agreed upon by most of the world's civilized nations; although the fact that they still make war upon one another calls into question the "civilized" portion of the phrase.

At times, Lincoln found himself in positions which the Founding Fathers could never have envisioned, and consequently, Lincoln was forced to interpret the Constitution in a way that he felt would preserve the Union. Blockading a nation’s own ports was unheard of at the time; and probably has not been done anywhere since; but against all legal advice and counsel, that is precisely what Lincoln did in order to strangle the supply line flowing in from foreign ports, as well as to end the exportation of cotton to pay for those goods.

The suspension of Habeas Corpus is the one most readily identifiable example of Lincoln’s actions as President during the Civil War. At one point, during the infamous “Prize Cases” which arose out of the legal wrangling concerning the blockade, Lincoln increased the numbers of sitting judges on the Supreme Court to 10, rather than the traditional 9. This gave him the extra votes necessary to “swing” one of the other judges in his favor, delivering a 6-4 victory for the decision.

The book also explores the negotiations which took place between John Dix for the Union, and Daniel Harvey Hill representing the Confederate States. Working on prisoner exchanges and rules of captivity, the two men forged the framework for what would later become established rules of warfare throughout the rest of the 19^th century. It should be noted that these rules seem only to have applied to American and European nations, as the slaughter of the American Indian continued well after the Civil War was over.

Parole was the main way in which an enemy combatant could be freed once captured. But often, the parolee would simply return to the lines again, making a farce of the whole system. A Code was clearly needed. One prominent politician, Charles Sumner, had even proclaimed that once the enemy “had departed from the great principles laid down by Christ…” anything was fair game.

From blockades and blockade runners, to the war tribunals; which are still an issue today; this book delivers on all levels. As a source of history it is researched well and written with a deft hand. And, as a testament to man’s capacity to wage war and commit atrocities against his fellow man, necessitating that we have some sort of Code of Conduct when it comes to warfare, it would be hard to find an equal.

"The Hour of Peril" by Daniel Stashower (2013)

The plot to assassinate President-elect Lincoln has always been a source of fascination for me. When I was living in Baltimore, some 30 odd years ago studying for a Coast Guard License, I used to stand opposite the Calvert Street Station and contemplate what would have been if the plot to kill Lincoln had been successful. And, standing on the very spot in the station where Lincoln had once trod held another appeal all of its own. So, naturally, I was eager to pick this book off the shelf at the library where it was presumably waiting just for me. And, what a treat it was to read!

Author Daniel Stashower has taken the oft told story of the attempted assassination of Lincoln en route to Washington and turned it into an all-encompassing saga of such diverse topics as; Scottish immigration, the westward expansion of the United States as a nation, the Abolitionist Movement, Allan Pinkerton’s rise from humble beginnings to his world-wide fame as a premier Private Investigator, his part in the Underground Railroad, his friendship with John Brown, and of course the founding of the Secret Service.

Along the way he introduces the reader to Eugene Vidocq, the former criminal turned law enforcement agent who founded the French Surete, and pioneered the plaster casting of footprints and established one of the earliest criminal data bases of the era. He was the actual inspiration for Victor Hugo’s character Jean Valjean in “Les Miserables.” Even the Lincoln-Douglas Debates are not ignored here, nor their implications concerning the inevitable coming of a Civil War. Oh, and did I mention that this is a book about Abraham Lincoln’s First Inauguration?

In a sweeping style, and drawing upon all sources, the author has penned what could very well become the basis for a movie about Allan Pinkerton. If Steven Spielberg were to undertake this as a companion piece to his current blockbuster “Lincoln”, he could not miss. 

As a member of the Scottish Chartist group; who were early champions of the working class and later tied to Marx and Engels; Pinkerton was also a natural  champion of Abolition. His work with John Brown put him in direct violation of both state and federal laws, but still he persevered . His attitude was expressed in the oft quoted “The ends justify the means, if the ends are for the accomplishment of Justice.”

When the author does get around to the journey by rail from Illinois to Chicago, by circuitous fashion, passing through all the stops on the way to New York, and from there on to Washington, D.C.; including a very dangerous change of stations at Baltimore where the President-elects life was in imminent danger; the narrative actually gets even better, if that is imaginable. 

The smoke filled cars come to life as the train hurtles toward the destiny which will ultimately; some 4 years later; culminate in the President’s death by an assassin’s bullet. That in itself is almost ironic; that he should live through the earlier attempt upon his life, only to die in the same way after holding the country together during a vicious Civil War; seems almost as if history had done with him; and having done so, cast him aside.

This book also explores the role that the railroads were beginning to play in the way Americans lived, worked and even engaged in politics. Filled with rogues, knaves and the world's first female detective, there is something for everyone in this book. It is still early in the year; and the book is just recently out; but I would suggest that if you only read one or two books this year, skipping this one would be a real loss.

Fort Sumter - The Outbreak of Civil War

The following was first posted here in 2010. I hope that no-one is bothered by my occasional “re-posts”, but there are new readers who may not have read this before, and of course, I get to have the day “off”.

On April 12, 1861 Confederate batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter, S.C. triggering the American Civil War. The attack came after months of talks and 2 days of demands by the Confederates that the fort be surrendered. When Major Anderson refused, the Rebels attacked. The photograph shown here was taken on April 14th; one day after Major Anderson was forced to evacuate the Garrison.

The battle was not a ferocious one by any standards. It was a bombardment of over 3,000 enemy cannon balls, which severely damaged the fort. There were no actual casualties inflicted by the enemy. One Union artilleryman was killed and two soldiers were injured when their cannon misfired. This was small change in comparison to the carnage that was yet to come.

Although this engagement is often cited as the beginning of hostilities for the Civil War, that is not quite the truth. In December of 1860 South Carolina became the first state to leave the Union. Within 6 days Major Anderson took his men from the badly situated Fort Moultrie and secretly removed them to Fort Sumter. He did so of his own volition and with no authorization from Washington.

By January the Government of South Carolina, as well as Brigadier General Beauregard, were both calling for the fort to be turned over to the Confederacy. On January 9th, 1861 when the Union attempted to resupply Fort Sumter via a shipment aboard the merchant vessel Star of the West, Southern troops opened fire, resulting in the ship turning about without resupplying the fort.

In Washington, President Lincoln was faced with the first serious test of his Presidency and the challenge to his campaign promise that he would keep the Union whole. Fort Sumter had supplies which would hold it until April 15th. By April 6th, with no diplomatic relief in sight, Lincoln dispatched a fleet of ships to resupply and defend the fort. Under the Command of Gustavas Fox, the Cutter Harriet Lane, with the Sloops of War Pawnee and Powhatan, and Steamers Pocahontas and Baltic along with 3 tugs, set sail for Charleston. They would arrive on April 11th at the sand bar which comprises the natural abutment around which Fort Sumter was built.

Happy Birthday George Washington!

Back when I was a kid we celebrated George Washington’s birthday as a separate holiday; as we did with Abraham Lincoln’s birthday. There was a special quality about having the day off in the middle of the week that is lacking in the combined holidays, resulting in the 3 day weekend we now refer to as President’s Day.

First off, a little bit of trivia. Washington was not born on the 22^nd of February 1732.  He was born on February 11, 1731, over one year earlier. In 1731 we were still using the old Annunciation Style calendar which was woefully outdated as compared to the science of astronomy. It wasn’t until 1752 that the British government switched over to the new Gregorian calendar under the provisions of the New Style Act of 1750. I actually learned this is in 5^th grade.

Calendars have changed many times throughout the history of the world. The earliest calendars were based upon observations of the moon, which was the closest and brightest thing visible to the ancients. The lunar calendar sufficed for thousands of years and served the basic purpose of marking time. Seasonally, there were adjustments necessary due to weather which affected the planting and harvesting of crops; then came the Sun.

When Copernicus proved that the earth revolved about the sun; and not the opposite; it was an upheaval in accepted logic. But this was the beginning point at which human beings came to redefine their understanding;  and methods of; chronicling the passing years.

The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used of calendars due to the fact that it is secular and scientific in nature. It’s interesting to note that this calendar is based upon Copernicus’ observations, as it was only a few decades removed from the Spanish Inquisition, during which the very teachings of Copernicus were banned by the Church. That the church even accepted a calendar based upon the sun as a fixed object, with no religious significance in the keeping of time, was a tremendous event.

The main advantage of the Gregorian calendar is that it keeps most of the world on the same schedule; a feat which became of increasing importance as the world seemingly “shrunk” with the advent of the Age of Exploration and Industrialization. For the most part though, the world’s leading religions; including the Roman Catholic Church; still use an older outdated calendar in calculating the dates of religious traditions and ceremonies.

For instance, the Roman Catholic Church relies on the insertion of a correction each year in determining the dates of Good Friday and Easter. It doesn’t always coincide with the actual history, as Good Friday and Easter often fall before the Jewish holiday of Passover, the events of which had to have occurred before the Crucifixion of Jesus. The Jewish calendar is still lunar based; and much like the Chinese Buddhist calendar, it can get confusing.

Pope Gregory XIII signed a Papal decree on February 24, 1582 adopting the new calendar in Europe. The other European nations followed within the next couple of centuries, with the practice reaching America in the early half of the 18^th Century, just in time for the birth of George Washington.

The switch from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar may seem silly, as it is based upon only 11 minutes or so of difference in the time calculated for the earth to revolve about the sun. But over a period of time; centuries; this adds up considerably if not corrected. Something like 3 days in 400 years. When Gregory was Pope we had already slipped by 10 days since the Roman era. This made the spring equinox fall on the 11^th of the March instead of the 21^st, and it was still drifting further away from that fixed date; which had been set by the church centuries earlier. Since that date affected the timing of the Christian holidays, the Church decided to “fix” it.

There were 2 parts to the “fix”; the first being a change in the number of “leap years” observed every 4 centuries to 97 from 100. This was the idea of Aloysius Lilius, a Calabrian physician. While the shift from the lunar calendar to the solar based Julian calendar was a big step forward in keeping track of the passing years, the Gregorian calendar was an even further step in this direction.

There is much more involved in the history of the calendar which we use today as we further refine our time keeping methods with atomic clocks and “leap second” corrections. But, this is just a simplified account of how George Washington had his birthday changed by more than a year.

_______________________________

Hey,Rush Limbaugh! 

Rush Limbaugh is ashamed of America! Guess what? We're ashamed of Rush Limbaugh. The talk show host has, in the past, told all apologists for America to love it or leave it. He also promised to move to Canada if President O'Bama won the election in 2008. We're still waiting....

"Double V" by Rawn James, Jr. (2013)

In this exciting new book by Rawn James, Jr., the author examines the history of the African-American fighting man.  Remember, these were guys who had to fight just to get into the fight! And then when they returned home, they were treated as second class citizens at best; and horrific resentment for their patriotism at the worst.

Author Rawn James, Jr. goes to extraordinary lengths in his recounting not only the exploits of these brave men, but also examines what they hoped to gain by fighting for freedom overseas, while the very freedoms for which they were fighting, were denied to them here at home.

Beginning with the American Revolution and the death of Crispus Attucks in the Boston Massacre, and on through the end of World War Two, when President Truman finally desegregated the Armed Forces, African Americans have contributed greatly to the building of a nation.

From the slaves who built the Capitol city in Washington, D.C., and even on the battlefield, African Americans were a large part of the American Revolution. Officially there were no real “black” troops during the War for Independence, but the hard work of re-supplying the troops, while still working the farms for the sustenance of all, was a very necessary contribution to the Victory at Yorktown in 1781.

General Washington was one of the first to exclude African Americans from the ranks of the Armed Forces. In 1775 the Continental Congress, in an overwhelming decision, voted to bar any blacks; free or slave; from taking up arms in defense of the colonies. The reasoning was simple; since Virginia was the most prosperous colony, with many large plantations supplying the needs of the Continental Army; it was imperative that the slaves remain slaves. The fear of well trained and armed black men was not one that appealed to our founding fathers, who were slave holders.  Any resistance from the northern colonies on the issue of slavery could have scuttled the Revolution before it ever got off the ground.

As a matter of fact, the preceding policy caused John Murray, Governor of Virginia, to proclaim that any African Americans who took up arms against their masters to fight for the Crown would be freed. This action caused the colonies to reverse their course on the ban for African Americans to fight for freedom, and many a Hessian soldier stated that there was hardly a regiment in which African Americans did not take the field, often in the place of their masters.

By the time the War of 1812 rolled around, the Governor of Louisiana would make a direct appeal to President Madison for freed persons of color to be allowed to take up arms in order to oppose the invasion by the British at New Orleans. The permission was granted and hundreds of African American soldiers fought, and died, valiantly under General Jackson at New Orleans. In addition, fully 15%; or more; of all American seamen at the time were black. There was a reason for this.

Just as Crispus Attucks had escaped slavery by becoming a seaman, many other escaped slaves chose this same path to self-emancipation. The reasoning was that if you were aboard a ship at sea, the chances of being caught were slim to none. And; unless you sailed out of a Southern port; you were essentially free wherever you went. It was a form of self-exile, which took many African American men away from slavery, but at the same time denied them a family with a real home ashore.

One of the thornier bumps on the road to integrating the Armed Forces was the dilemma faced by President Lincoln in the Civil War. He was forced to straddle a line between the slave holding northern states of Maryland, Delaware and even Washington, D.C. itself; while attempting to free the slaves held in the Southern states. The reasoning was simple; without the slave labor in the south, the Confederacy would be in short supply of everything imaginable.  The Emancipation Proclamation only freed the slaves in the states under rebellion, giving the northern states an edge in manufacturing and labor to draw upon.

At the beginning of the war, blacks were allowed to work as laborers, blacksmiths, scouts and spies. But by the time the south had gotten as far as Antietam, Maryland Lincoln changed his mind. Within the next year there would be over 50,000 ex-slaves serving in the Union Army.

By the time the United States entered the First World War the nation was reeling under the Jim Crow laws of the south. Lincoln may have freed the slaves, but nothing could legislate the thinking of the people in the South. They remained opposed to African Americans in the military. My own grandfather, while training for service in that war, was witness to a near riot in Spartanburg, S.C. when a black officer entered the lobby of a “whites only” hotel to buy a newspaper. 

The situation was the same in the rest of the country as well, with black soldiers routinely beaten in Houston, Texas.  The soldiers finally had enough and marched out of Fort Logan and before dawn of the following morning, scores of white citizens, and black soldiers were dead.

When these same soldiers returned from combat overseas they expected to be finally accepted as full citizens, having just fought for their country, as well as the cause of freedom. But aside from a parade in Harlem, things quickly went back to normal with a vengeance. By 1925 the Ku Klux Klan would be marching openly down Pennsylvania Avenue, in front of the White House, fully robed. Down south lynching’s were becoming the norm, with many of the African American veterans being openly targeted due to their service in the war.

When the Second World War broke out the country was still of the mindset that blacks were inferior to whites. Indeed, the Supreme Court still upheld “Separate but Equal” as the law of the land.  It made no sense then, and boggles the imagination now. From the very first day of the war, and the attack on Pearl Harbor, African-Americans distinguished themselves countless times in the face of the enemy; both in the Pacific, as well as in Europe.

When the Japanese began bombing and strafing Pearl Harbor, Steward’s Mate Doris Miller, aboard the West Virginia, saw what needed to be done, and without training, or orders, he did it. He manned an anti-aircraft gun and shot at the Japanese planes, even as his white shipmates lay dying around him. For those actions, he became the first black man to be awarded the Navy Cross. It was pinned upon Doris Miller by Admiral Nimitz in Pearl Harbor on May 27, 1942. He died while still serving his country on Thanksgiving Day 1943.

With the outbreak of the Second World War the military needed to rethink its policies concerning race, and on June 1, 1942 the United States Nave began to accept black recruits. They were trained at Camp Smalls, adjacent to Great Lakes in Illinois. This was the first major step in the desegregation of the entire Armed Forces.

No account of the desegregation of the military can be complete without an accounting of President Harry Truman and his Executive Order formally ending segregation in the services. Born in a border slave state to a viciously prejudiced family, the future President had served in the First World War and seen black troops in service to their country. Although he was not without racial prejudices of his own, he was nowhere near as short sighted about racial issues as many of his fellow countrymen.

On July 26, 1948 Harry Truman signed Executive Order Number 9981 which essentially stated that the Armed Forces of the United States needed to reflect the values we fight for; namely; equal opportunity. What made this so fantastic is that Harry Truman was in the midst of a re-election campaign which no one thought he would win.  Indeed there may have been a political component to Truman’s decision; he wanted the black vote. But there can be no denying that his Executive Order, and the resultant Fahy Committee, were the spears which broke the back of institutionalized racism in the Armed Forces.

The Fahy Committee accomplished the task of desegregation in the Navy and the Air Force in short order.  Both of those branches were ready, and willing, to accept the change. With the Marines and the Army it would be a different matter; a matter of time.

By the outbreak of the Korean War the Army was finally on board with the program and the Marines reluctantly followed in the next decade. Today the Armed Forces are fully integrated, with about 38% of the combined services made up of African-Americans. Has racial prejudice completely disappeared from the military? Not likely; but it’s no longer institutionalized, nor accepted. It took too long, but as they say, “You’ve come a long way baby!” Now it’s on to the newest challenge; women in combat. 

"Rise to Greatness" by David Von Drehle (2012)

When I was growing up; in the days before computers and the internet; the best authorities on Abraham Lincoln were Bruce Catton, and also Carl Sandburg. Their biographies of the nation’s 16^th President were the best resources available at the time. The internet age has allowed so much history; that was previously tucked away in obscure corners; to come forth, and the result has been that authors are now able to concentrate more fully on particular areas of interest. Author David Von Drehle has certainly availed himself of just about everything that Lincoln said, or wrote, in the year 1862 to create this remarkable account of Lincoln’s second; and perhaps most difficult; year as President of the United States, at a time when we were anything but.

During his second year in office, Lincoln had to deal with a recalcitrant General McClellan; who simply put; would not fight, forgoing many advantages, while continually overestimating the enemy’s strength. At the same time, he was also plagued with keeping the country out of war with France and England, secure the cotton trade, establish a naval blockade, ensure that his generals were prosecuting the war in an aggressive manner, and keep his sanity as he struggled with his composition of the Emancipation Proclamation. All about him was chaos, and it would be on his shoulders to bring order to it all, if he hoped to hold together the Union.

Even with General Grant there were problems. Although he would fight, he took some extraordinary measures to achieve victory. His infamous Order Number 11; evicting all of the Jewish people from Paducah; which resulted in a delegation from that city undertaking a journey to Washington for an audience with the President, is a prime example of the myriad of problems which constantly besieged him. In this same year he would also lose his favorite son, Willie, to an epidemic of yellow fever, leaving the President haunted and empty. This would prove to be the hardest year of Lincoln’s life, as well as the most perilous to a Union victory.

Some of the most compelling portions of the book deal with General McClellan and his “missed” opportunities to turn the tide of the war in the Union’s favor during its first year. His failure to capture Richmond with superior numbers of troops will always baffle historians. Was he just meek, or was he trying to influence the outcome of the war? We may never know. What is sure is that no President, save Truman, ever had to deal with such a problem some General, and Truman freely admits to having looked to the history of the Civil War in an effort to deal with MacArthur effectively.

Having lived in the area around Washington and Baltimore, where many of these events took place; made the events seem even more real to me than they already were; notwithstanding that I have visited most of the places involved. While in the Navy I was stationed at Norfolk, where each day I could look out and see the site of the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack; the first battle ever fought between two armored vessels.  France and England may have already had ironclad vessels; but the Civil War was the first test of how they would fare against one another; as opposed to an ironclad vessel undoubtedly being superior to a wooden one.

The book is filled with things that will be new to some students of the Civil War; the economic aspect of which is very interesting. At one point there was a “gold for cotton” program by which the United States bought cotton from the South, who then bought more arms from the French and British. This was a short-lived program, as people were furious at the stupidity of it. There were a number of programs which dealt with freeing the slaves in the hopes of shortening the war. The principal one dealt with in this book was the Compensated Emancipation program, which worked in the same manner as the “gold for cotton” fiasco. Essentially, the slaves would be bought by the government at the rate of $400 per slave and then set free. It was a system designed for abuse and was as long lived as the cotton deal.

The Emancipation Proclamation is explored by the author as it took shape during the year in which Lincoln worked on it. The President was walking a tightrope, impossibly trying to appease all factions; an impossible feat to accomplish; as he himself had stated in an 1858 address that “a house divided among itself cannot stand.” Although that speech referred to the Union in the days leading up to the Civil War, it was no less true of trying to govern the North alone, with its many opposing views on how to win the conflict.

The Supreme Court, and Lincoln’s uneasy relationship with Chief Justice Taney; author of the Dred Scott decision; is another aspect of the Lincoln Administration which has been relegated to the back shelf of history. And here again, Mr. Von Drehle takes it down and dusts it off for a clearer understanding. The Court; constitutionally composed of 9 judges, was down to just 6 when Lincoln took the helm of the nation in 1861. He, like those before and after him, hoped to pack the court with justices he could count on to back him up in his interpretation of the constitutionality of the laws proposed by himself as President, as well as those of the Congress and Senate.

There is a bit of humor in this well written account of Lincoln’s; and the nation’s; most troubled year. At one point; when he was having troubles with his toes; he was seen by a podiatrist in Manhattan, Isachar Zacharie, who was so successful in resolving the President’s problems. Lincoln wrote him a note thanking him and affirming the success of his treatments. The good doctor lost no time in having handbills printed with the President’s complimentary remarks, which he then had distributed all over New York. Of course, the New York Herald lost no time in holding this up as an example of the Presidents misplaced priorities, going so far as to blame the recent military failures on Lincoln’s paying too much attention to his feet. Some things never change, and the predilection towards sensationalism by newspapers is a prime example.

The Emancipation Proclamation has always seemed to be a bit duplicitous to me. It freed the slaves only in the states under rebellion, even as slavery was still in force in Maryland, Delaware and even parts of Pennsylvania. Nothing short of a Constitutional Amendment would ever be strong enough to truly free the slaves in the entire country. But the story of 1862; Lincoln’s most difficult year; is the story behind the birth of that Amendment. With his careful and far ranging study of that year, Mr. Von Drehle has taken us on a month by month journey leading up to the final revision and actual release of the Proclamation itself. 

And though President Lincoln would not live to see the culmination of the events he had played such a significant role in achieving; without him our nation may have foundered before having ever achieved equality under the law for all of its citizens. And that work continues, even unto this very day.

"38 Nooses" by Scott W. Berg (2012)

Abraham Lincoln was one of the busiest Presidents this country has ever known. Not only did he preside over a fractured nation at war with itself, the result of which abolished slavery, he also was present at several battles during that war; most notably the Battle of Hampton Roads; which re-captured the city of Norfolk in 1862. His Gettysburg Address still stands as one of the greatest speeches ever made by any leader in history. These are some of his key accomplishments, for which he is rightfully remembered. But in the area of Indian Affairs he remains very much overlooked.

Author Scott W. Berg has changed that with this highly charged account of one the lesser known accomplishments of the Lincoln Administration; his handling of the war along the Minnesota border in August of 1862, as the Dakota Indian nation battled with settlers and federal troops over the non-payment of gold which had been promised them in payment for giving up tribal lands east of the Mississippi River. When those payments stopped, largely due to the war back east; and the Indians were issued paper money in lieu of that gold; a spark was lit which ignited the powder keg that had long been festering.

Already bogged down with the Civil War; and a recalcitrant General McClellan, who seemed unwilling to press the military advantages as directed by the President; the last thing which Lincoln needed was an Indian uprising in the West. That uprising, when it occurred in August of 1862, took on every nuance of the greatest dramas ever written.

Led by Little Crow, the Dakota were a group of tribes which existed first on the east side of the Mississippi, until they were herded to the western side for “re-settlement”, an politically correct term for stealing land. Through many broken treaties and promises they waited patiently for the “great white father” in Washington to bring them justice. When that justice did not appear, the Dakota began to strike back, and the results would be anything but pretty.

Little Crow himself is worthy of an entire book on his own. A contradiction in all manners; including his manner of dress; he seemed to straddle both the white world as well as the world of his ancestors and tribesman. But no man can stand with two legs apart and not take sides for long, and that is exactly the fate which befell Little Crow.

From the opening chapters of this book, which take place in Minnesota and Washington, D.C., and on through the Dakotas flight toward Canada; where they hoped to gain the recognition of the British Government, the book reads like the finest western ever written.

Relying upon the rift between the North and South as they engaged in their “civil” war, Little Crow and the Dakota never really had a chance. In one of the most poignant moments of the book, when Little Crow is confronted by his fellow tribesmen, who are eager to go to war with the “whiteman”, Little Crow delivers one of the finest speeches ever made as he warns them of the path they are about to embark upon. He tries to tell them that a war would mean a complete loss of their way of life, and after blackening his face in mourning he retires to his teepee. When he is called a coward by his one of his own braves, he re-emerges from the teepee, reluctantly agreeing to lead them to war, while still arguing against the wisdom of his braves.

And so begins a 6 week odyssey of Indian raids, US Cavalry reprisals, hostage taking, and even a bit of international intrigue as Little Crow attempts to find a new home for his tribe. When all of those plans fail; as he predicted they would; he is forced to surrender. Almost 300 of the Indians were charged with various crimes and all set to hang for them when the President; still busy with his prosecution of the war, and General McClellan; stepped in, pardoning 265 of the condemned men. That still left 38 Dakota to hang, and hung they were, in the largest single government execution ever held.

A fascinating book, which leaves no stone unturned, the author has carefully examined every resource available in order to present the story as accurately as possible. The result is history come to life as you follow the Dakota tribe from their first dealings with the white settlers in the late 18^th century, until the last of their battles with the cavalry and the executions of the 38 braves who were not pardoned.

There is a brief section at the end of the book in which the author follows up on the fate of some of the principal characters in this sweeping, and true, drama. And, winding up the book is a very thorough, chapter by chapter listing of the sources which the author referenced in order to write the history of one of the lesser known tragedies that spelled the end of the Dakotas, and their way of life.

"Elihu Washburne" by Michael Hill (2012)

Some of the greatest heroes are often the ones you have never heard of. Their deeds go without laurel; sometimes confined to the trash heaps of history. But for author Michael Hill, such could have been the fate of Elihu Washburne, America’s Minister to France at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in the late summer of 1870. The following fall and winter brought shortages of food and fuel to the city of Paris, and people there were reduced to eating cats and dogs, even their own horses, in order to survive.

In the midst of all of this turmoil and suffering, only one foreign Minister remained at his post; Elihu Washburne, an American of poor origins who was the recipient of much ridicule when he took the post offered him by President Grant. Before the crisis in the winter of 1870, no one could have guessed at the degree of fortitude he possessed. But, given the chance, he proved them all wrong.

The Franco-Prussian War grew out of France having remained neutral during the Prussian invasion of Austria in the late 1860’s. Their aim was to create a German Federation in Northern Europe, something they would try on a much larger scale in the coming 20^th century. Napoleon III was not prepared to engage in a war with Prussia , and his policy of appeasement failed. Prussia invaded France in 1870. During this conflict, our Minister to France was the only foreign dignitary to remain at his post. And not only was he able to do that, he was also able to get 20,000 Germans civilians out of Paris; where they were in extreme danger. In addition he was able to keep several hundred more German citizens under the protection of our Embassy, even sharing his scant supply of food with them.

During the nearly 300 days of war; with the Prussians led into battle by their own Monarch, King Wilhem I, along with his military adviser Otto von Bismarck; Paris was under siege from August of 1870 through January of 1871.

The author has taken the diaries and journals of Elihu Washburne and crafted them into a highly charged and readable account of what it was like to be in the City of Light when the darkness of war took over. There were many heroes, and also villains, at work during the siege. Using the diaries of Minister Washburne; as well as drawing from the cables of American Secretary of State Fisk; the author draws a complete picture of a very principled and dedicated diplomat caught up in a storm for which he was unprepared, yet acquitted himself with valor.

With an emphasis on the causes of the conflict, Mr. Hill has given us the background necessary to understand the events leading up to the siege. In doing so he has also supplied the reader with new insights into the causes of the First and Second World Wars. But, more importantly, he has highlighted the actions of a single man caught up in a maelstrom, and through it all, gave his best.

"Lincoln" with Daniel Day-Lewis and Sally Fields (2012)

Outstanding performances by Daniel Day-Lewis as Abraham Lincoln; and Tommy Lee Jones as the irrepressible Congressman Thaddeus Stevens; make this film come to life in the hands of director Steven Spielberg. Focusing as he does, on the last part of Lincoln’s life, between November 1864 and the passage of the 13^th Amendment in January 1865; which prohibits slavery, lends the urgency which drives this film. During this period of time, with the nation almost at the end of the Civil War, Lincoln had to face a very hard choice. He could accept the negotiated peace sought by the Southern States, or he could continue fighting to achieve the goal of abolishing slavery in the United States forever. To do otherwise would leave the question open; and by necessity would have to be dealt with again sometime in the future.

Daniel Day- Lewis gives one of the most nuanced performances of his career in this film. Some viewers may find the President’s voice to be surprisingly high pitched and slightly nasal. This is no mere interpretation on the part of Mr. Day. That is how Lincoln spoke. Although there are no voice recordings of the man, there are many written descriptions concerning the subject. His interpretation of the President, and his penchant for story telling in order to communicate a point, is spot on to everything we know about Lincoln. His affection for his sons is palpable, as is his consternation with his wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, brilliantly portrayed by the lovely Sally Fields.

Thaddeus Stevens; one of the most important characters in this film; known as the 'dictator' of Congress; was born in Vermont and moved to Pennsylvania after completing his education at Dartmouth.  He became a member of the Federalist Party, but moved to the Anti-Masonic Party, before becoming a Whig, and then finally joining the Republican Party. In 1833, he became a congressman, running on an Anti-Masonic platform. He served as Congressman until 1842. During his time in local office he opposed the state constitution because it did not permit African-Americans to vote. In 1848 he returned to Congress, serving until 1853 as a Whig. He then returned as a Republican in 1853, serving until his death in 1869. Passage of the 13^th Amendment would not have been possible without him.

In his personal life he was never really married, living for 23 years with his quadroon widowed housekeeper, Lydia Hamilton Smith. She was considered to be his common in law wife and neighbors referred to her as Mrs. Stevens. She had 2 sons by her first husband, both of whom were adopted by Mr. Stevens. She invested some of her own money in a boardinghouse and several other businesses which were prosperous and provided for her in old age after the death of Mr. Stevens. When he passed away he left her a choice of taking a lump sum payment, or an annual stipend. She chose the lump sum, using it to buy the house where she and Mr. Stevens had lived their lives together.

The film captures the mood of the nation as the Civil War is about to come to a close. The South was exhausted, both spiritually as well as materially, and a delegation was sent to Washington to negotiate peace terms. This was all done in great secrecy, with the President rejecting any offer that did not end the slavery issue once and for all. To this end a new Amendment was proposed to abolish slavery forever. The Congress was sharply divided on the issue, concerned that the Southern states would never agree to uphold the Amendment. The Southern negotiators wanted to be admitted back into the Union before the Amendment was ratified by the Senate. Lincoln was adamant in getting the Amendment; the first of the “Reconstruction Amendments”; ratified before the Southern states retook their place in the Senate, where it could strike the Amendment down.

This is the dilemma which Lincoln faces in the closing months of 1864 and January 1865, as he struggles with the Democrats, as well as his own Republican Party, to assure passage of the Amendment. Calling in every favor owed, and twisting arms when all else failed, the President was able to push the bill through Congress, where it was proposed, and passed on January 31^st, 1865. The law was then approved by the President on February 1^st; even though the Constitution does not allow for that occurrence. The bill was not formally ratified by the Senate until December 1865, some 8 months after the President’s death. This may not have been clear in the film.

The makeup, and performances, by each of the principal actors  were extraordinary.  As a director, Steven Spielberg is without a doubt one of the great film makers of our time. And with this film, he has once again proven that point.

"The Siege of Washington" by John and Charles Lockwood (2011)

The most fascinating thing about this book is the mystery of why the Confederacy did not immediately take possession of Washington, D.C., which would have ended the war; or at least put the South in the driver’s seat concerning a negotiated truce. Indeed, the Southern populace expected no less. They marched off to war, thinking that they would return within months, rather than years. What was the reasoning behind this ill-fated decision on the part of the Confederacy? Why was Washington so lightly defended at a time when it was crawling with rebel sympathizers, and surrounded by the slave holding states; Maryland, to the north; and Virginia, to the south?

In this book by authors John and Charles Lockwood, history comes alive as they explore these crucial questions, as well as the relationship his 2 key aides played during the 12 days between April 15^th and April 25^th, 1861; a mere 6 weeks after Lincoln had assumed the Presidency in March. These 2 remarkable men; John Nicolay; aged 29, from Springfield, where he had worked as Lincoln’s assistant; and John Hays, aged 22, who was hired as Nicolay’s assistant in Washington; were instrumental throughout Lincoln’s Presidency. But they were never more effective than they were in the crucial first days of the War Between the States, as the new President struggled to come to grips with the enormity of the task before him.

Calling upon General Winfield Scott, the General in Chief of the nation’s Army, plans were immediately put into effect to secure the roads and railways entering the city. Washington was; at that time, and on into my own youth; a decidedly “southern” town. Segregation existed there openly up until the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The threat of hostilities breaking out within the city itself was a real and constant danger that had to be dealt with. To that end, the President called upon 75,000 Union volunteers, each of whom would serve for 3 months. Just as the South expected to crush the North in a short while, the North fully expected the same of themselves.

Also at stake were the territories out west. California talked openly of leaving the Union, and rather than join forces with the far distant Southern states, form a Republic of her own with Oregon and the Pacific Northwest territory which would later become the state of Washington.

Back in New York the same idea was forming. With New York City alone generating 2/3 of the nation’s import taxes on all goods which passed through its port, it was a “no-brainer” to figure out who would be paying the bulk of the cost of a war with the South. Also at stake for the merchants in New York was the 40 cents per dollar which they received from the export of cotton to England. Should the South be successful in establishing her own nation, the middle man in New York would be left with no percentage at all. Added to that was the threat of the “free negro”; 4 million to be exact; who would eventually move to the Northern cities, competing with white immigrant workers for the same jobs. That feeling alone led to the Draft Riots of July 1863, just as the Battle of Gettysburg was raging; causing valuable troops to be diverted to New York to fight in what was almost a “rear guard” action, rather than a mere riot.

Also threatening Washington was the City of Baltimore, with its own peculiar mixture of feelings concerning slavery. The city was also home to the Union Trust Bank, which held considerable reserves for the North. This made it imperative to hold onto Maryland, and after the events of April 18^th, during which mobs in the city attacked the Union soldiers as they marched along Pratt Street, the city was under occupation for the remainder of the war. The troops had been marching from the old train station; which stood on President Street, at the Eastern end of today’s Harborplace; to the Camden Street Station, the site of today’s Camden Yards, home to the Baltimore Orioles baseball team. At the intersection of Charles and Pratt Streets the mob had grown to over 2,000 strong, and, armed with clubs and paving stones, attacked the troops.

In this wide ranging account, the author gives new thought to the importance of these 12 most perilous days of the war. Until now, the most engaging story of Lincoln’s assumption of the Presidency has always been the attempted assassination which occurred before he even took office. And, although the story of the Baltimore riot; and the later New York Draft Riot; have been told many times, this is the first book which I have read that puts all of these pieces together. The author has successfully re-created the excitement; and fear; of a time when our nation was at war, and the seat of government surrounded by her enemies.

"Millard Fillmore" by Paul Finkleman

Millard Fillmore is one of the least studied of the US Presidents. Yet, the years in which he served were marked by some of the main decisions and mistakes, that would lead to the Civil War. By 1844 the Whig Party was just about finished. The divisions in the country had become so sharply defined concerning slavery, that a new Party was formed. It was called the American Party, or the American Anti Catholic Party, and later on the Know Nothings. This is interesting in that the political situation in America today is almost the same. The biggest difference is that instead of the Know Nothing Party, today we have the Tea Party.

Millard Fillmore was not opposed to slavery, nor to it's expansion into the new territories and states. This was a most highly charged issue, which arose from the Founding Father's neglect to abolish slavery, leaving it, like today's National Debt, swinging in the wind for future generations to tackle. The band aids of the Missouri Compromise, and the Fugitive Slave Act, among others, merely served to stoke the flames of discontent that would eventually erupt into a full blown conflict which still defines our nation today.

Some of the most interesting parts of this book concern my own native state of New York, and New York City in particular. Governor Seward, who would later go on to purchase Alaska from Russia during the Lincoln Administration, repealed the 1799 Nine Months Law, which allowed Southerners visiting the free state of New York, to bring their servants with them, and then take them home again, like property. After 1841 this law was no longer valid. There were many free states who were beginning to ignore the Constitutional requirement to honor the laws of the Southern States where slavery was concerned. (The Full Faith and Credit stautes, under Artcle 4 in the Constitution, required that they do so.)

In 1852, while Fillmore was in the White House, New York freed 8 slaves who had been locked up overnight in a hotel room while their owner waited for a ship. This case was known as Lemmon vs. the People. During this same time, Governor Seward refused to extradite 3 Seaman who helped a slave stowaway aboard their ship, landing in New York. Virginia took the position that the slave was stolen, and that the 3 men had aided and abetted in this crime. New York took the position that human beings are not property and hence no crime was committed. When rebuked by the State of Virginia, Seward skillfully argued that Virginia's own stance on States Rights applied to New York as well, and since New York did not recognize slavery, there could be no extradition. Virginia withdrew it's claim.

A very thoroughly researched book, this is a must read in understanding just how we got to the tragedy of the Civil War, and how it still affects us as a nation today. Filled with the type of history not taught in school, this book further proves the assertion that "the only thing new is the history you don't know."

The Civil War - Fort Sumter

On April 12, 1861 Confederate batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter, S.C. triggering the American Civil War. The attack came after months of talks and 2 days of demands by the Confederates that the fort be surrendered. When Major Anderson refused, the Rebels attacked. The photograph shown here was taken on April 14th, one day after Major Anderson was forced to evacuate the Garrison.

The battle was not a ferocious one by any standards. It was a bombardment of over 3,000 enemy cannon balls, which severly damaged the fort. There were no actual casualties inflicted by the enemy. One Union artilleryman was killed and two soldiers were injured when their cannon misfired. This was small change in comparison to the carnage that was yet to come.

Although this engagement is often cited as the beginning of hostilities for the Civil War, that is not quite the truth. In December of 1860 South Carolina became the first state to leave the Union. Within 6 days Major Anderson took his men from the badly situated Fort Moultrie and secretly removed them to Fort Sumter. He did so of his own volition and with no authorization from Washington.

By January the Government of South Carolina, as well as Brigadier General Beauregard, were both calling for the fort to be turned over to the Confederacy. On January 9th, 1861 when the Union attempted to resupply Fort Sumter via a shipment aboard the merchant vessel Star of the West, Southern troops opened fire, resulting in the ship turning about without resupplying the fort.

In Washington, President Lincoln was faced with the first serious test of his Presidency and the challenge to his campaign promise that he would keep the Union whole. Fort Sumter had supplies which would hold it until April 15th. By April 6th, with no diplomatic relief in sight, Lincoln dispatched a fleet of ships to resupply and defend the fort. Under the Command of Gustavas Fox, the Cutter Harriet Lane, with the Sloops of War Pawnee and Powhatan, and Steamers Pocahontas and Baltic along with 3 tugs, set sail for Charleston. They would arrive on April 11th at the sand bar which comprises the natural abutment around which Fort Sumter was built.

Realizing that the re-supply of the fort would only prolong the situation, General Beauregard ordered the bombardment. The first shot to be fired has always been claimed by Edmund Ruffin, who was not a Revolutionary War veteran, as widely taught in school, but was an ardent secessionist. In reality the first shot was fired by Lt. Henry Farley, commanding 2 mortars from nearby James Island at 4:30 AM. The Civil War had begun and Charleston, one of the most beautiful cities in the country, would be under seige for the duration.

"Libby Prison Breakout" by Joseph Wheelan

The Civil War was anything but "civil." It was fought with cruelty on both sides. This book concerns the notorious "Libby" Prison in Richmond. The prison was located in a series of three adjoining warehouses that had been the home to a ship chandler by the name of Luther Libby. He had purchased it prior to the war from the original owner, John Enders, in 1852. When the Confederacy commandeered the buildings for use as a prison, the sign Mr. Libby had hung above the entrance with the name "Libby and Son", would cement his name into history forever, through no fault of his own.

The book tells three intertwined stories, each of great interest and each dependent upon the other.

The first part of the story is an examination of the state of affairs in Richmond, the Capitol of the Confederacy during the days leading up to the war. In this phase we are introduced to Elizabeth Van Lew, a Southern, aristocratic woman, born in the North and with deep Union sympathies. She is also a woman of courage and action. She uses her social position to assist the Union in espionage concerning troop strengths and positions. She also organizes an "underground railway" for Union prisoners who manage to escape the deplorable conditions within the walls of Libby Prison.

The authors' description of Richmond and the food shortages coupled with the lack of clothing and building materials conjure up the scenes of Atlanta in "Gone With the Wind". They are simply that vivid.

At the same time as Ms. Van Lew is working outside the prison, the men inside are anything but idle. They are stealing, buying and otherwise engaged in any way that they can to stay alive. They even manage to buy civilian clothing with money smuggled in to them and some are able to simply walk out in this manner. But these are rare exceptions.

While all this is happening, two Union officers, Colonel Rose and Major Hamilton, have begun their own separate attempts at escaping the worst prison since the British prison ship Jersey, located in Brooklyn, New York. After seperate failures they team up to dig a tunnel beneath the walls and into the sewer system in an attempt to escape. They try three times before they succeed.

The book also examines the principles of war, if there are any. Which allegiance is stronger? The duty to one's country, or to humanity? The author compares some of the atrocities of the British during the Revoutonary War with the actions of both the North and the South against one another in the Civil War. You will be surprised at who was doing what to whom, and how little that war has changed in the intervening years. Only the technology is different. The brutality is not.

Finally it is the story of a mass prison escape in which 109 Union officers made their way to freedom. Once they were out of the prison, Ms. Van Lew and her group of activists (which included some of the slaves) manage to hide, supply and transport these men back to Union lines. Some of the means they employ are ingenious, some are simply daring and required nerves of steel.

One further aspect to this book, that makes it more than just another escape story, is the authors use of the subject to explore the policy of "unrestricted warfare". Is it just to use prisoners as bargaining chips? Must we stand on principle when dealing with enemies that abuse and torture our own captives? These were some of the questions faced by President Lincoln and his Generals in dealing with the Confederacy. While we officially rejected the policies of "unrestricted warfare" we cannot ignore Andersonville, the notorious Union hell hole along the Kansas-Missouri border, where "unrestricted warfare" was the norm. General Shermans "March to the Sea" also comes to mind as an example of Northern abuse.

A vividly written book, you will look forward to each chapter as the author takes you through the paces. And you will be surprised, or maybe not, at the relevance of the issues raised here, to the events of today as they pertain to war.

"This Day In Civil Rights History" by Horace Randall Williams and Ben Beard

This book is a real treasure. Composed of 365 pages, each one chronicles a significant event in the history of African-Americans and the country in which they live. Turn to any page and you learn someting new. Even if you know the story being told on any particular day, this book serves as a reinforcement of the lessons learned through several centuries of racial strife and adjustment.

This is one of those perfect books for the times when you don't have the time, or inclination, to read something longer. Filled with facts and insights, this book will lead you to dig more deeply into some of the events recounted here. This is also an excellent resource book for teachers, as well as anyone who deals with kids. The day by day accounts give the subject a relevance which is sometimes lacking in todays teaching of the Civil Rights Movement. So much is now taken for granted, it's almost as if the door has been closed on the subject. This book is the key to re-open that door.