"Our Man in Charleston" by Christopher Dickey (2015)

This book tells the story of the diplomatic efforts which kept Great Britain from recognizing the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War. Moreover, it tells the story of how and why that eventuality was avoided.

As the North and South grew ever closer to war in the aftermath of Abraham Lincoln’s election to the Presidency, there was another war; unseen by most at the time; taking place between Washington and Downing Street, the outcome of which could turn the tide of the Civil War.

To understand this book you need to have some rudimentary background about both the United States and Great Britain as relating to the cotton crop. And that is not as simple as you may have been led to believe.

The North desperately needed to keep Southern cotton from reaching England. Had it done so it would have financed the war for the South; while plunging the North further into debt.  Moreover, the United States would have had to take a stand against Britain and risk a war which would have us fighting the British to the North,  as they came down from Canada, at the same time we would have to fight a full scale insurrection to the South and West.

As it turned out, morality; rather than just a quest for victory; came to play in this drama. And that morality surprisingly came from London. Well, maybe it’s not such a surprise after all, as the British had abolished slavery throughout the United Kingdom even as we were fighting the American Revolution here in America. So the British had a vested interest in seeing the Union win the moral contest. At least that is how Her Majesty’s government saw it.

But the other side of the British coin was that the lack of cotton from America; with not enough cotton from Egypt or Africa; had the mills of Lancashire silent as there was no cotton to weave. BY 1862 there were hundreds of thousands out of work and literally starving. So the working class of England wanted to recognize the Confederacy, if only to put food back on their tables. But Prince Albert; consort to Queen Victoria; had worked his entire life to end the African Slave Trade, and he was not about to let the progress he had made toward that goal fall victim to what he considered to be a short term economic problem.

But, even as we were on the brink of war with Britain on one point, we were closer to her on another. The problem was how to exploit the latter, while downplaying the former. There were several people involved in this seemingly impossible task, and all played crucial roles in keeping the situation from spinning out of control.

To begin with there was the English Consul in Charleston, Robert Bunch, who came to America in 1853 and therefore had a bird’s eye view of the developing friction between the North and South. This background was invaluable in shaping his opinions and actions in the opening days of the Civil War, while he was still allowed to dwell in Charleston even though the British Government had not recognized the South diplomatically. And while he was there he used his time to send intelligence reports back to Downing Street informing them of every development and how they would affect the Crown should she decide to recognize the new nation.

The other chief player in this drama was American Secretary of State Seward, who vacillated between belligerence and diplomacy in his efforts to keep us out of war with the English. A mercurial man at best, he used the threat of war with England to avoid actually going to war with them, and much to everyone’s surprise; including his own; we never did have to fight that war.

1862 was a pivotal year for this whole diplomatic contretemps. While this dance was taking place the United States seized British packet steamer Trent as she left Cuba bound for London with former US Senator James Mason and Louisiana Senator John Slidell aboard. American Navy Captain Charles Wilkes; commanding the American steamer USS San Jacinto; intercepted the Trent and boarded her, removing the 2 Southerners and returning them to the United States. The British were furious. This is the point at which Prince Albert shines the most brightly. This episode became known as the Trent Affair.

Lord Palmerston and Lord Russell drafted an ultimatum to the United States, directed at the much despised Secretary of State Seward, giving the United States one week form receipt of the ultimatum to release the two diplomats. It lacked only the approval of Queen Victoria to become a reality.

And this is where history gives us a fine example of the randomness of all things. The Queen was busy getting dressed for a dinner party and was not to be bothered. Albert, on the other hand, was ill with the early stages of the typhoid which would end his life in only a few more days, and so he decided to remain behind. That is how he came to see the draft of the ultimatum before the Queen did. He simply changed it to read “Her Majesty’s government is unwilling to believe that the United States intended wantonly to put an insult upon this country.”

Now Seward had a way to wiggle out of; and also explain; why the United Sates had taken the action it had. You must remember that Albert was faced with the prospect of recognizing the Confederacy and that would entail allowing the African Slave Trade to continue; thus destroying his legacy. This was made very plain to the Confederate Secretary of State via the released Senator Mason.

At about the same time the Lincoln administration was seeking to assure the Crown that there would be no reconciliation with the South if slavery were not abolished outright.  Lincoln crafted the Emancipation Proclamation to deny the South the necessary labor to carry on the cotton trade and also satisfy the Crown that slavery, where it already existed in the United States; and which Lincoln was willing to live with as per his 1861 Inaugural address; was gone forever. 

This bond between the 2 nations was the actual linchpin which kept England from trying to influence the war. It was a highly noble stance, especially considering the economic implications which would result from the decision not to recognize the Confederacy.

This is a highly charged piece of history which has been skillfully crafted by the author. The quotes from Robert Bunch are extraordinary, and I will include one which lends much insight into the mind of this diplomat cum intelligence agent;

“Other nations; especially those enlightened and more old fashioned in their notions; rebel and fight for Liberty. South Carolina; and the Confederacy; are prepared to do the same for Slavery.”

Reading this book is essential to a full understanding of the diplomatic war which was raging even as the canons were firing and the grape flying. It underscores the old adage that the “Pen is mightier than the sword.” But for the agreement between the United States and Great Britain, the Civil War just might have taken a different turn.

Juneteenth - A Brief History

Today is Juneteenth. This is the day when slaves in Galveston, Texas were first informed of their freedom from slavery; over 2 years after the Emancipation Proclamation and the subsequent passage of the 13^th Amendment. It’s sad that this was not part of the curriculum in school when I was a kid. The way things were taught back then held that the Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves. Period. That was the correct answer to the question.

It even comes up that way on the Andy Griffith Show, in the episode “Andy Discovers America.” And that was a show which took place in the South! The story of Juneteenth is such a joyful one that I am surprised at how it escaped the attention of most folks until the late 1960’s and the rise of African-Americanism as a recognized field of study. Remember that the next time someone says that we don’t need a Black History Month.

Basically the story of Juneteenth is that it is the day in 1865 when the slaves in Galveston, Texas; and the western states in general; found out that they were no longer slaves. Imagine that. You wake up one day and find out you’re not a slave any longer. Where do you go? What do you do? So, mixed up with all the joy there had to be a certain sense of apprehension about the immediate future. It’s the exact reversal of you and I waking up tomorrow and being told that we are now slaves.  Either scenario is almost unimaginable; though the former is preferable to the latter!

Also known as Freedom Day, or Emancipation Day, it is celebrated to commemorate the Emancipation of the last remaining slaves in America.  General Order #3 which was the legal instrument by which the Federal Government informed not only the newly freed slaves; but also the government of Texas in general, that slavery was at an end. Texas was the last of the former Confederate States to comply with the Emancipation Proclamation, even after hostilities had ended.

This was largely due to the fact that the Confederate States of America had never formally agreed to an end to the war; either by treaty or proclamation. The Confederate States were left without any leadership after their government in Richmond fell and the leaders fled. The effect of that is still felt today. President Johnson would proclaim the War Between the States to be at an end the following year; in May 1866.

On June 18, 1865, General Gordon Granger, along with about 2,000 troops came to Galveston and took control of the state, Primarily the reason for this was the reluctance of the state to end slavery within its jurisdiction. The following day the General issued the Order while standing on the balcony of Ashton Villa.

This is the text of “General Order No. 3” which was read on June 19, 1865;

“The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere.”

By the late 1920’s and early 1930’s many African- Americans had begun the Great Migration from the Southern and Western states to the big cities. The decline in Juneteenth celebrations occurred during this period. Just as slavery had robbed them of their African customs in the past; industry in the free world would now rob them of some of their new customs as freed persons.

It was actually the Poor People’s March in 1968 which put this colorful and lively holiday back on the cultural map. Although not an actual Federal Holiday, the date is observed in almost all of the states in some fashion. 

The photo at the top was taken in Galveston on Juneteenth circa 1900.

"Rise to Greatness" by David Von Drehle (2012)

When I was growing up; in the days before computers and the internet; the best authorities on Abraham Lincoln were Bruce Catton, and also Carl Sandburg. Their biographies of the nation’s 16^th President were the best resources available at the time. The internet age has allowed so much history; that was previously tucked away in obscure corners; to come forth, and the result has been that authors are now able to concentrate more fully on particular areas of interest. Author David Von Drehle has certainly availed himself of just about everything that Lincoln said, or wrote, in the year 1862 to create this remarkable account of Lincoln’s second; and perhaps most difficult; year as President of the United States, at a time when we were anything but.

During his second year in office, Lincoln had to deal with a recalcitrant General McClellan; who simply put; would not fight, forgoing many advantages, while continually overestimating the enemy’s strength. At the same time, he was also plagued with keeping the country out of war with France and England, secure the cotton trade, establish a naval blockade, ensure that his generals were prosecuting the war in an aggressive manner, and keep his sanity as he struggled with his composition of the Emancipation Proclamation. All about him was chaos, and it would be on his shoulders to bring order to it all, if he hoped to hold together the Union.

Even with General Grant there were problems. Although he would fight, he took some extraordinary measures to achieve victory. His infamous Order Number 11; evicting all of the Jewish people from Paducah; which resulted in a delegation from that city undertaking a journey to Washington for an audience with the President, is a prime example of the myriad of problems which constantly besieged him. In this same year he would also lose his favorite son, Willie, to an epidemic of yellow fever, leaving the President haunted and empty. This would prove to be the hardest year of Lincoln’s life, as well as the most perilous to a Union victory.

Some of the most compelling portions of the book deal with General McClellan and his “missed” opportunities to turn the tide of the war in the Union’s favor during its first year. His failure to capture Richmond with superior numbers of troops will always baffle historians. Was he just meek, or was he trying to influence the outcome of the war? We may never know. What is sure is that no President, save Truman, ever had to deal with such a problem some General, and Truman freely admits to having looked to the history of the Civil War in an effort to deal with MacArthur effectively.

Having lived in the area around Washington and Baltimore, where many of these events took place; made the events seem even more real to me than they already were; notwithstanding that I have visited most of the places involved. While in the Navy I was stationed at Norfolk, where each day I could look out and see the site of the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack; the first battle ever fought between two armored vessels.  France and England may have already had ironclad vessels; but the Civil War was the first test of how they would fare against one another; as opposed to an ironclad vessel undoubtedly being superior to a wooden one.

The book is filled with things that will be new to some students of the Civil War; the economic aspect of which is very interesting. At one point there was a “gold for cotton” program by which the United States bought cotton from the South, who then bought more arms from the French and British. This was a short-lived program, as people were furious at the stupidity of it. There were a number of programs which dealt with freeing the slaves in the hopes of shortening the war. The principal one dealt with in this book was the Compensated Emancipation program, which worked in the same manner as the “gold for cotton” fiasco. Essentially, the slaves would be bought by the government at the rate of $400 per slave and then set free. It was a system designed for abuse and was as long lived as the cotton deal.

The Emancipation Proclamation is explored by the author as it took shape during the year in which Lincoln worked on it. The President was walking a tightrope, impossibly trying to appease all factions; an impossible feat to accomplish; as he himself had stated in an 1858 address that “a house divided among itself cannot stand.” Although that speech referred to the Union in the days leading up to the Civil War, it was no less true of trying to govern the North alone, with its many opposing views on how to win the conflict.

The Supreme Court, and Lincoln’s uneasy relationship with Chief Justice Taney; author of the Dred Scott decision; is another aspect of the Lincoln Administration which has been relegated to the back shelf of history. And here again, Mr. Von Drehle takes it down and dusts it off for a clearer understanding. The Court; constitutionally composed of 9 judges, was down to just 6 when Lincoln took the helm of the nation in 1861. He, like those before and after him, hoped to pack the court with justices he could count on to back him up in his interpretation of the constitutionality of the laws proposed by himself as President, as well as those of the Congress and Senate.

There is a bit of humor in this well written account of Lincoln’s; and the nation’s; most troubled year. At one point; when he was having troubles with his toes; he was seen by a podiatrist in Manhattan, Isachar Zacharie, who was so successful in resolving the President’s problems. Lincoln wrote him a note thanking him and affirming the success of his treatments. The good doctor lost no time in having handbills printed with the President’s complimentary remarks, which he then had distributed all over New York. Of course, the New York Herald lost no time in holding this up as an example of the Presidents misplaced priorities, going so far as to blame the recent military failures on Lincoln’s paying too much attention to his feet. Some things never change, and the predilection towards sensationalism by newspapers is a prime example.

The Emancipation Proclamation has always seemed to be a bit duplicitous to me. It freed the slaves only in the states under rebellion, even as slavery was still in force in Maryland, Delaware and even parts of Pennsylvania. Nothing short of a Constitutional Amendment would ever be strong enough to truly free the slaves in the entire country. But the story of 1862; Lincoln’s most difficult year; is the story behind the birth of that Amendment. With his careful and far ranging study of that year, Mr. Von Drehle has taken us on a month by month journey leading up to the final revision and actual release of the Proclamation itself. 

And though President Lincoln would not live to see the culmination of the events he had played such a significant role in achieving; without him our nation may have foundered before having ever achieved equality under the law for all of its citizens. And that work continues, even unto this very day.

"Lincoln On War" by Harold Holzer

This may be the best book yet written concerning Abraham Lincoln. Actually, it is the closest thing to having Lincoln pen his own memoirs of the years between the War with Mexico and our own Civil War. In some ways it even eclipses the great 2 volume masterpiece by Carl Sandburg, which is considered by many, me included, to be the "Holy Grail" of books about our most mercurial President.

The War with Mexico is of great interest, as the annexation of the state of Texas, aside from having been accomplished illegally, added fuel to the fire that would eventually grow into the conflagration of full blown Civil War. Lincoln saw the annexation of Texas as a way for the Southern States to hold a majority in the Senate and Congress. This was at the time of the great debates concerning the Missouri Compromise, and the Fugitive Slave Act, both of which were mere band aids or attempts in vain, to stave off the bloodshed which was sure to come from the slavery question.

The author has let Lincoln speak for himself by using the President's letters and speeches to make his point. The book is laid out in a way which parallels the career and thoughts of our 16th President on all of the issues leading up to the Civil War. And once that war has begun, this correspondence gives us a new and keener insight into the thoughts behind the actions taken by Lincoln during the prosecution of the War Between the States.

Lincoln, at the outset, wanted only to ban slavery in the new territories being acquired out west. He had no intention of outlawing the institution itself. As late as in his first Inauguration speech, Lincoln was still not calling for the Abolition of Slavery in the Southern States, but only in the newly acquired territories. In his first Inaugural Address he spoke these words; "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the Institution of Slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." He had made this same declaration in earlier speeches and was re-quoting himself in an effort to allay the fears of the Southern States, which had already seceded from the Union in January of 1861.

By the time that Lincoln issued his duplicitous Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves in enemy territory only, the outlawing of slavery in the Southern States became the objective of the war. Previously the chief concern had been one of finances. Lincoln queried, on more than one occasion, whether it was right for the Southern States to leave the Union while keeping the forts and roadways which had been paid for by federal loans. These loans would have to be repaid to the banks, and Lincoln considered it to be an unfair burden upon the remaining states to bear the full brunt of their repayment.

This is an exciting book which lays bare many of the myths that have been pumped into us over the years; Mr. Holzer has presented a new side of one of our most well-known, but often misunderstood Presidents.

"Lincoln for the Ages" Edited by Ralph G. Newman

The "stacks" of a local library hold more forgotten history than can be learned in a lifetime. History moves so quickly that often much of it is left behind. And many of these "lost" pieces of the great puzzle can often be found in the "stacks." I go there often.

In this long forgotten and obscure book, published in 1960, are the views and anecdotes relating to President Lincoln, written by 76 distinguished Americans of the time. Many of the stories told here, as in the instances of his law partnership with William Herndon, cast more light on the character of Abraham Lincoln than anything written about him since.

His legal expertise has never been questioned, as in the Patterson case, a murder trial. Lincoln was able to show the innocence of his client through the use of an almanac, proving that the Prosecution's witness was lying when he said he observed the killing in the light of the moon. The almanac showed that there was no moon that night, thus freeing his client.

The Lincoln-Douglas debates, which arose out of the Kansas Nebraska Act debates show his uncanny ability to turn the tables on the most cunning of opponents. Lincoln had previously argued both sides of the Fugitive Slave Act, winning for both sides in different trials of the same charge. Out of the fierce debate roiling the country concerning the Kansas Nebraska Act, Lincoln was able to rise to national prominence with his scathing oratory and homespun appearance, both of which he used like scapels.

The plot to kidnap him enroute to Washington, D.C. on the eve of his inaguaration is more fully explained here in 3 pages than anywhere else. The plan was to hold him for ransom, the release of the Southern States from re-joining the Union would be the price. The plot was uncoverd in Philadelphia, and folied in Baltimore.

During his Presidency, Lincoln learned to use the press to his advantage, encouraging them to visit with him often. He would usually greet them with a hearty, "What news have you?" He would then go on to grill them, and in the process gave out far less information than he received. His relationship with the press would become the launching pad for the Presidential news conferences, which were first held by his sucessor to the Presidency, Andrew Johnson.

Lincoln's foreign policy is largely ignored in light of the Civil War, but on that frontier he was most active, and astute. Knowing that England could easily ally itself with the South posed a tricky situation for Lincoln. He could not afford to fight them, which would haved tied up the naval resources necessary to fight the Confederacy, as well as run the blockade against privateers. Yet, when 2 Southern envoys were being transported via an English ship to London for a conference with the Queen, the United States Navy, without the President's authorization, seized the ship and imprisoned the men. Lincoln took this situation and turned it to his advantage. He released the ship, and later the men, with a word to the British that we would brook no meddling in the ongoing conflict. He then issued his controversial Emancipation Proclamation, turning our own Civil War into a moral cause which Britian already supported, thus turning them into an ally. Prior to this, Britian had already shipped 8,000 troops to Canada for insertion in the Civil War, intending to fight for the South. After the Proclamation these troops were withdrawn.

France was posing a problem as well. They had invaded Mexico, with promises from the Confederacy that they could gain a foothold in America if they would support the South. Lincoln solved that one as craftily as he did the British problem.

We have all been taught about "Seward's Folly", the seemingly silly purchase of Alaska from Russia. But what we weren't taught was the relationship of Russia at the time to France and England, with which Russia had just lost a war. She needed two things badly; the first was cash, hence the sale of Alaska. The second thing they needed was to get their navy into a safe harbor. Lincoln allowed them to moor their fleets off San Francisco and Norfolk, thus covering two perimeters with a seemingly neutral force at no expense to ourselves. The mere presence of the Russian fleet made certain that no country would attempt to intervene on behalf of the Confederacy.

In politics Lincoln had no equal. Confronted by men such as Salmon Chase, William Seward, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron as rivals, he made them all members of his cabinet, where he could keep an eye on their political ambitions.

Lincoln never considered the South to have left the Union, so there simply was no provision in the Constitution for punative action against the Southern states after the war had ended. Thus, his last directive was to "Let 'em down easy." Evidently no one was listening, and the next 100 years would see the South mired in racial discontent and constant upheaval. Had Lincoln lived, this may not have happened.

This is a wonderfully enriching book for any Lincoln scholars to sink their teeth into. Remember, the only thing new is the history you don't know.

Abe Lincoln at 202 - Defining a Legend

Today is Honest Abe's birthday. He was born in 1809. There was a time when this portrait, along with that of George Washington's, graced the walls of every classroom in America. He was like a God. But now we are a bit older and more jaded, and we hear much talk about Lincoln's real purpose with the Emancipation Proclamation was to cripple the South as far as labor was concerned, while doing nothing to free the slaves in the Union held States. This is all very true. We also hear much talk of State's Rights being the true cause of the Civil War in lieu of slavery.

And that reminds me of a story that concerns Old Abe and State's Rights. Like most good stories, there is not likely to be any truth to it, but it does make it's point. I heard this tale about 30 years ago, and have used it many times in illustrating just how inter-dependent we are on one another if we are to make the world a better place in which to live. I hope you enjoy the story, and moreover, I hope you get the point..

Abe Lincoln was riding on a train when the man in the seat next to him lit a big cigar. The smoke, and smell, of the cigar was wafting across Mr. Lincoln's face, making it hard for him to breath. He politely asked the man, "Sir, your cigar smoke is causing me great difficulty. I wonder if you would mind putting it out?"

The other man looked at Lincoln and said, "Sir, I will have you know that I paid for both my seat and the cigar. If I wish to smoke the cigar, and it bothers you, that's too bad!" With that he sat down and blew a large cloud of smoke across Mr. Lincoln's face.

Lincoln reached down into his bag and drew out a large pistol, which he then pointed at the other man's head, stating as he did, "I, too have paid for both my seat and this pistol. If I chose to shoot it and the bullet bothers you, I suppose that is the same thing?" The other man extinguished his cigar..

Lincoln was a most crafty lawyer, arguing, in different cases, successfully, both for and against clients in cases that involved the Fugitive Slave Act, which required that all runaway slaves were to be considered property and returned to their original owners. Lincoln argued, quite easily in one case, that the slave was indeed the property of his client. The slave was returned to his owner. In the other case he argued that since the trial was taking place in a free state, the runaway slave had all the rights of a free man, and therefore could not be treated as property by the law. That slave was given his freedom.

There is a reason that Abraham Lincoln is so important to the history of this nation. It's not that he freed the slaves, or split rails. The reason that Abraham Lincoln is still so important to us today was spoken by Old Abe himself during his 1858 acceptance speech as the Republican Candidate for Senate, when he said, "..a house divided against itself, cannot stand." Truer words were never spoken, nor so apt as they are today.

"The Fiery Trial" by Eric Foner

Abraham Lincoln was a complex man. A potrait of him hung on the wall in my Kindergarten class, so his image is a part of my psyche. There are certain things I have come to accept about him. The Emancipation Proclamation is one of those things. But the story behind it is quite another. History is never cut and dry, and as I said, Lincoln was a complex man.

The author of this book has done a superb job of attempting to find the "real" Lincoln. He has gone to painstaking lengths to do so, and in the process has shed some light on a very volatile, and often misunderstood, chapter in our collective history.

Did Lincoln free the slaves with the Emancipation Proclamation? All the slaves? Right away? Most Americans believe the answer to be yes to all three of these questions. And most Americans would be wrong. The issue of slavery has been a thorn in the side of the Republic since the first day of it's founding. How one group of men could write of tossing off "the chains and shackles that bind us", while continuing to allow the institution of slavery to exist, is mind boggling. That the Civil War didn't occur sooner than it did, is amazing.

Lincoln found himself in the middle of all these questions, both moral and legal, which surrounded the issue of Abolition. And he took all sides, playing them all. He was a moral man, to be sure. But, he was also a shrewd politician, and that profession can often trump "our better angels."

Take the Missouri Compromise as an example. As a Congressman, Lincoln was for it. It would abolish slavery East of the Missouri, but allow it to continue West of that divide. True, he was attempting to hold the Union together, but how wise was it to delay the inevitable confrontation that awaited the nation?

Once the war began, Lincoln found himself committed to taking some sort of action that would underscore the issue of slavery. In late 1862 he rolled out the Emancipation Proclamation. This document was immediately construed to be the Instrument by which slavery, as an institution, was abolished in the United States. But that is only a half truth.

The Emancipation Proclamation only freed the slaves in the states that comprised the South. The slaves in the North would not attain full freedom, by this Instrument, until 1900. The main idea was to grant freedom to the slaves in the South in an effort to get them into the fight on the side of the North.

As early as May of 1861, only 2 months after the war had begun, General Butler was already allowing runaway slaves to take refuge in Fortress Monroe, at the mouth of the James River opposite Norfolk, in Virginia. This was in direct contravention to the Fugitive Slave Act, which was nullified as soon as the South fired the first shot at Fort Sumter. The irony here is that these slaves were taking refuge to avoid working as slaves for the Confederacy, yet when they arrived at Fortress Monroe, they were immediately assigned to work details as cooks and laborers, for the Union Army, without pay.

Meantime, in Washington, Lincoln was formalizing plans to ship ex-slaves back to Haiti and Liberia. There was also something called the "Chiriqui Project", which Lincoln had discussed as early as 1861. This plan would have shipped all African-Americans to Colombia to build a colony on land owned by one Ambrose W. Thompson.

As all this talk of Emancipation and Repatriation was taking place, there was considerable opposition in the black community. Some, if not most, of the freed slaves were born here in America, which technicaly made them natural born citizens.Once again, irony rears it's head, as Lincoln had made this very argument himself while in Congress. Moreover, there were many white Republicans opposed to the plan, further hindering it's implementation. Frederick Douglass was also one of the most vocal opponents of these plans to ship African-Americans away from the land of their birth.

This is a fascinating book that will inform the reader on many levels concerning the Institution of Slavery and how it came to an end in America. And some of it will suprise you, because history is not always what you have been taught to believe.