"Taking on Teddy Roosevelt" by Harry Lembeck (2015)

There is a widespread belief which holds that the 1948 defection of the so called “Dixiecrats” who left the Democratic Party over Harry Truman’s desegregation of the Armed Forces sparked the defection of African-Americans from the Republican Party of Lincoln to the Democratic Party of today.  And there is some truth to that. But the real migration began about 50 years before that and involves Theodore Roosevelt, Booker T. Washington, and a riot in Texas which may not have been what it appeared to be.

In August 1906 the 25^th Colored Infantry Division was stationed at Fort Browning in Brownsville, Texas. They had replace the all-white 24^th which had served it’s time and was rotating back east. The townsfolk were more than a bit leery of having armed colored troops stationed just outside of town.

After several racially motivated incidents, several men; supposedly from the fort; went on a shooting spree, wounding some of the townsfolk and damaging most of the buildings which had refused to serve them. The events that followed underscored the deep racial divisions which split America in the days after the Civil War and still divide us in many ways.

   

President Theodore Roosevelt, who had served as William McKinley’s Vice President, was seen as a “gradualist” in the matter of race relations. He talked a great game about equality as he set the Great White Fleet off to show the flag, but here at home the President allied himself with Booker T. Washington; the African-American educator who founded the Tuskegee Institute to train Negroes in the Industrial Arts. 

In some ways Tuskegee was a trade school; rather than a true college of higher learning. He believed; and the President agreed with him; that Negroes were better suited for factory work and menial labor rather than any of the professions. They believed that it would take time to achieve the educational levels for Negroes to rise in society. One has to wonder whether or not anyone ever bothered to ask Booker T. how he had made the transition so quickly, and why he felt that his contemporaries could not.

The author explores the attitudes of the times in relation to the expectations of the African-American concerning armed blacks in the military. Although the “colored” troops had performed well in the Civil War; and the legendary Buffalo Soldiers; to whom the soldiers of the beleaguered 25th Colored Regiment were related by history; the people in Brownsville Texas were clearly not comfortable in having these troops present. It was only a matter of time until something happened.

The author explores the writings of some of the most illustrious African-American writers of the day; pitting the writings of W.E. DuBois against the politics; and policies; of Booker T. Washington and President Roosevelt. While DuBois was initially in agreement with the “gradualism” approach to equality, he ultimately saw the flaws in this arrangement. Who would decide when African-Americans were ready for advancement? Shouldn’t that question be decided by the African-Americans themselves; rather than be left with the very government which had allowed them to be enslaved for over 80 years after Independence had been declared?

This is a sweeping book encompassing both the incident at Fort Browning itself; as well as the political implications for the entire nation at the time. It would be well to remember that the history in these pages informs the debate on race relations in America today every bit as much as the news in today’s paper.

"The Birth of a Nation" by Dick Lehr (2014)

For years I wondered what the value was of having this film in the library. Then I got interested in film and realized the brilliance of the film process itself; given the times and technology. What a conundrum; a classic film with much to admire in technological marvels, but filled with flawed history and blatant racism. How do you even review a film like that?

Author Bert Lehr has gone beyond that with his all-encompassing book about the film and 2 men; both ahead of their times. D.W. Griffith was the director of the film; and Monroe Trotter was the African- American man who rallied his people; and a good portion of the nation; in denouncing the film. In addition, he has created a biography of the film itself and the rising pangs of former slaves to be treated like citizens. It is, in short, the story of an era.

The author begins with brief biographies of both men; drawing a contrast that is as remarkable as fiction. Griffith’s father was James Griffith, a staunch segregationist and veteran of the Civil War who had served with the Kentucky Calvary and fought at Charleston when the Union marched in.

Likewise, so was Trotter’s father a veteran of the Civil War; having served in an all-black regiment of the Union Army. He was one of the men who marched into Charleston as Griffith’s father fled. The irony of their two sons facing off over a film about that war, 50 years later, is remarkable.

After the film was finished; but before its release; it was screened for President Wilson in private at the White House. Wilson was a Southerner and thought the film was wonderful. Trotter saw it differently. He; along with Union veterans both black and white; organized boycotts and protests across the country, and denounced the film as racist.

Yet for all of the protestations about the glorification of the Ku Klux Klan, and the attendant lynching’s, the film has remained a staple of film history. Most of the times it is touted as a breakthrough film as far as technology goes. And there is much truth to that. But the darker side is that it remains a searing portrait of our country at a crossroads.

The bitter taste of Reconstruction was still very fresh on the minds and in the hearts of the southern people; just as the bitterness of slavery was still very much alive in the former slaves and their children. The Jim Crow era was in full swing. And D.W. Griffith made a film which glorified the era, as well as the swinging bodies which that era produced.

This book is all encompassing. It is two biographies in one. It is the history of the Reconstruction Era and also a look at the Jim Crow Days which ushered in a new century. Given the history of the divide, it is no surprise that the events of that century still affect us today.

The USS Mason - Fighting Jim Crow

Most of America fought two different enemies in World War Two. That was hard enough. But the men of the USS Mason- DE 529, a Destroyer Escort, had the added burden of fighting a third enemy, Jim Crow.

At the outbreak of World War Two the Armed Forces were segregated, just like half the country was. This would not change until after the war was won, but during the war there were some courageous efforts on the part of some, to integrate America's fighting force. The story of the USS Mason is the story of one of those efforts.

Built in the Boston Navy Yard and launched in 1943, she was commissioned in March of 1944 under the command of Lt. Commander William Blackford, a white officer. He would command the Mason with a handful of white officers and an all-black crew.

After a successful shakedown cruise off Bermuda in the spring of 1944 the Mason headed into action. They escorted a convoy from Charleston, SC to the Azores, arriving on July 6th. The ship then put into Belfast; Northern  Ireland, for Liberty ashore. The crew was astonished at how well they were received by the locals. Even in England they were denied access to many facilities, but the Irish, albeit neutral in the war, welcomed these men as "Yanks" rather than "Tan Yankees" as they were referred to by the British.

But her greatest story was yet to come. On September 19th, 1944 the USS Mason left New York City with Convoy NY 119. They were to protect her from the German U-boats which had been sinking ships as close as 10 miles off the coast of the United States.

This convoy was done during one of the worst months of severe weather that the North Atlantic would experience in the 2oth Century. In less than a month the weather had claimed 16 of the convoys vessels. The only way to prevent more loss was to send the smaller, faster ships ahead with an escort. The USS Mason was the ship chosen for this duty.

Attempting to lead the ships into Bishop Rock, England the ship was beaten by severe weather that actually split her deck and collapsed main beams. The Mason was a step away from sinking.

Calls for assistance were ignored and the crew of the Mason were left to their own devices to stay afloat. And stay afloat she did. Within 2 hours the ship was repaired and leading the convoy safely into port. She then turned around again and returned to the remaining ships. The two British ships assigned to help in this endeavor turned back, leaving the Mason to struggle alone to bring the convoy in. It would take three more days, and nights, in harrowing weather to accomplish this task.

The ship and its crew were recommended for Unit and Individual Commendations for these efforts by their Captain, Lt. Commander Blackford, as well as Convoy Commander Alfred Lind. The crew would not learn of these nominations for almost 50 years, during research for the book "Proudly We Served."

As a result of the book the crew was awarded the Citations in 2003. Former President Bill Clinton would present the awards on the deck of the latest USS Mason in New York City.

A movie was made of this story with Ossie Davis as Signalman First Class Lorenzo DuFau. The movie was riveting, especially the storm scenes. The story is told from Mr. DuFau's perspective when his grandkids wake him up late at night with some loud music. He tells them the story in a flashback that encompasses not only the story of the Mason, but of the segregated makeup of our nation, even as we were fighting to liberate the world at large.

The Mason story has been told in other books about the war, but never so vividly as in the book and movie. And for a real quick look at what these guys did you can drop in on them at their web site www.ussmason.org/

That this crew, made up of city kids and farm boys, some of whom had never seen an ocean, banded together in facing the Germans, as well as the forces of the sea, and won, make this one of the greater sea stories ever told. That they did it while under the thumb of Jim Crow is simply incredible.

Alabama Voter's Literacy Test - 1965

Lately there have been a lot of people; both Liberal and Conservative; who have called for the return of “literacy tests” to become eligible to Vote. This is in addition to the Conservative movement to roll back the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The photograph above was taken just after LBJ signed that bill into law in August 1965.  Among the people in the photograph are MLK and Rosa Parks.

Most people that call for the return of literacy tests are speaking in jest; more like exasperation at the views of the people who hold different political views than they themselves have. But, just for fun, I’d like everyone to take this 1965 Alabama test and see how they would score. Keep in mind that your level of education is far greater than that of the average African-American who would have been required to take this test in the 1960’s. And remember, in Alabama at the time education was a privilege and not a right for the people required to take this test.

The next time you hear someone talk about how “there ought to be a test for voting” whip this out and see how they would fare. You have about 15 minutes to complete the test and one wrong answer is a failing grade. You will be surprised at how little you think you know.

1. Which of the following is a right guaranteed by the Bill of Rights?

 _____Public Education

 _____Employment

 _____Trial by Jury

 _____Voting

 2. The federal census of population is taken every five years.

 _____True _____False

 3. If a person is indicted for a crime, name two rights which he has. ______________________ ________________________

 4. A U.S. senator elected at the general election in November takes office the following year on what date? _________________________________________________

 5. A President elected at the general election in November takes office the following year on what date? ______________________________________________________________________

 6. Which definition applies to the word "amendment?"

 _____Proposed change, as in a Constitution

 _____Make of peace between nationals at war

 _____A part of the government

 7. A person appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court is appointed for a term of __________.

 8. When the Constitution was approved by the original colonies, how many states had to ratify it in order for it to be in effect? _________________________________________

 9. Does enumeration affect the income tax levied on citizens in various states? __________

 10. A person opposed to swearing in an oath may say, instead: I (solemnly) ______________________________________________________________

 11. To serve as President of the United States, a person must have attained:

 _____25 years of age

 _____35 years of age

 _____40 years of age

 _____45 years of age

 12. What words are required by law to be on all coins and paper currency of the U.S.? ________________________________________________________________________

 13. The Supreme Court is the chief lawmaking body of the state.

 _____True _____False

 14. If a law passed by a state is contrary to provisions of the U.S. Constitution, which law prevails? ________________________________________________________________________

 15. If a vacancy occurs in the U.S. Senate, the state must hold an election, but meanwhile the place may be filled by a temporary appointment made by ________________________________________________________________________.

 16. A U.S. senator is elected for a term of _____ years.

 17. Appropriation of money for the armed services can be only for a period limited to _____ years.

 18. The chief executive and the administrative offices make up the ___________________ branch of government.

 19. Who passes laws dealing with piracy? ________________________________________________________________________

 20. The number of representatives which a state is entitled to have in the House of Representatives is based on _________________________________________________

 21. The Constitution protects an individual against punishments which are _______________ and _______________________.

 22. When a jury has heard and rendered a verdict in a case, and the judgment on the verdict has become final, the defendant cannot again be brought to trial for the same cause.

 _____True _____False

 23. Name two levels of government which can levy taxes: ________________________________________________________________________

 24. Communism is the type of government in: _____U.S.

 _____Russia

 _____England

 25. Cases tried before a court of law are two types, civil and _________________________.

 26. By a majority vote of the members of Congress, the Congress can change provisions of the Constitution of the U.S.

 _____True _____False

 27. For security, each state has a right to form a _________________________________.

 28. The electoral vote for President is counted in the presence of two bodies. Name them: _____________________________________________________________________

 29. If no candidate for President receives a majority of the electoral vote, who decides who will become President? ___________________________________________________

 30. Of the original 13 states, the one with the largest representation in the first Congress was ______________________________________________________________________.

 31. Of which branch of government is the Speaker of the House a part? _____Executive

 _____Legislative

 _____Judicial

 32. Capital punishment is the giving of a death sentence.

 _____True _____False

 33. In case the President is unable to perform the duties of his office, who assumes them? ___________________________________________________________________

 34. "Involuntary servitude" is permitted in the U.S. upon conviction of a crime.

 _____True _____False

 35. If a state is a party to a case, the Constitution provides that original jurisdiction shall be in ______________________________________________________________________.

 36. Congress passes laws regulating cases which are included in those over which the U.S. Supreme Court has ____________________________________________ jurisdiction.

 37. Which of the following is a right guaranteed by the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution.

 _____Public Housing

 _____Education

 _____Voting

 _____Trial by Jury

 38. The Legislatures of the states decide how presidential electors may be chosen.

 _____True _____False

 39. If it were proposed to join Alabama and Mississippi to form one state, what groups would have to vote approval in order for this to be done? ________________________________________________________________________

 40. The Vice President presides over ____________________________________________.

 41. The Constitution limits the size of the District of Columbia to ______________________________________________________________________.

 42. The only laws which can be passed to apply to an area in a federal arsenal are those passed by ___________________________________________ provided consent for the purchase of the land is given by the _________________________________________.

 43. In which document or writing is the "Bill of Rights" found? ______________________.

 44. Of which branch of government is a Supreme Court justice a part?

 _____Executive

 _____Legislative

 _____Judicial

 45. If no person receives a majority of the electoral votes, the Vice President is chosen by the

 Senate. _____True _____False

 46. Name two things which the states are forbidden to do by the U.S. Constitution. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

 47. If election of the President becomes the duty of the U.S. House of Representatives and it fails to act, who becomes President and when? _______________________________________________________________________

 48. How many votes must a person receive in order to become President if the election is decided by the U.S. House of Representatives? _______________________________

 49. How many states were required to approve the original Constitution in order for it to be in effect? ______________________________________________________________

 50. Check the offenses which, if you are convicted of them, disqualify you for voting:

 _____Murder

 _____Issuing worthless checks

 _____Petty larceny

 _____Manufacturing whiskey

 51. The Congress decides in what manner states elect presidential electors.

 _____True _____False

 52. Name two of the purposes of the U.S. Constitution. _________________________________________________________________________

 53. Congress is composed of __________________________________________________.

 54. All legislative powers granted in the U.S. Constitution may legally be used only by ______________________________________________________________________.

 55. The population census is required to be made very _____ years.

 56. Impeachments of U.S. officials are tried by ___________________________________.

 57. If an effort to impeach the President of the U.S. is made, who presides at the trial? _____________________________________________________________________

 58. On the impeachment of the chief justice of the Supreme Court of the U.S., who tries the case? ________________________________________________________________

 59. Money is coined by order of:

 _____U.S. Congress

 _____The President's Cabinet

 _____State Legislatures

 60. Persons elected to cast a state's vote for U.S. President and Vice President are called presidential _________________________________________________________.

 61. Name one power which is exclusively legislative and is mentioned in one of the parts of the U.S. Constitution above______________________________________________.

 62. If a person flees from justice into another state, who has authority to ask for his return? _____________________________________________________________________

 63. Whose duty is it to keep Congress informed of the state of the union? _____________________________________________________________________

 64. If the two houses of Congress cannot agree on adjournment, who sets the time? _____________________________________________________________________

 65. When presidential electors meet to cast ballots for President, must all electors in a state vote for the same person for President or can they vote for different persons if they so choose? _____________________________________________________________________

 66. After the presidential electors have voted, to whom do they send the count of their votes? _____________________________________________________________________

 67. The power to declare war is vested in ________________________________________.

 68. Any power and rights not given to the U.S. or prohibited to the states by the U.S. Constitution are specified as belonging to whom? ______________________________

Here are the answers;

1. Trial by Jury only

 2. False (every 10 years)

 3. Habeas Corpus (immediate presentation of charges); lawyer; speedy trial.

 4. January 3

 5. January 20

 6. Proposed change, as in a Constitution

 7. Life (with good behavior)

 8. Nine

 9. Yes

 10. Affirm

 11. 35

 12. In God We Trust

 13. False

 14. U.S. Constitution

 15. The governor

 16. Six

 17. Two

 18. Executive

 19. Congress

 20. Population (as determined by census) less untaxed Indians

 21. Cruel and unusual

 22. True

 23. State and local

 24. Russia

 25. Criminal

 26. False

 27. Militia

 28. House of Representatives, Senate

 29. House of Representatives

 30. Virginia

 31. Legislative

 32. True

 33. The Vice President

 34. True

 35. The Supreme Court

 36. Co-appellate

 37. Trial by Jury

 38. True

 39. Congress and the legislatures of both states

 40. The Senate

 41. 10 miles square

 42. Congress; state legislatures

 43. Constitution

 44. Judicial

 45. True

 46. Coin money; make treaties

 47. The Vice President, until the House acts

 48. 26

 49. 9

 50. Murder

 51. False

 52. (Preamble statements) "to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity."

 53. House of Representatives and Senate

 54. Congress

 55. 10

 56. The Senate

 57. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court

 58. The Senate

 59. The U.S. Congress

 60. Electors

 61. Pass laws, coin money, declare war

 62. The Governor

 63. The President

 64. The President

 65. They can vote for different people

 66. Vice President (President of the Senate)

 67. Congress 

 68. The states; the people

Federalists and Whigs - Irony in Politics

The irony in the history of our two major political parties is rich. Both parties actually stated out representing the opposite constituencies which they represent today. The history of this switch is largely blamed on the so called “Dixiecrats”; those Southern Democrats who in 1948; when Truman proposed a Civil Rights platform at the Convention; walked out, dividing the democratic Party forever and giving rise to a Republican faction which would someday become known as “Neo-Conservatism.”  That’s the short, contemporary side of things. But there is an interesting history which goes even further back.

Originally this country had a myriad of political parties; with the two largest being the Federalists and the Democratic-Republican Party. The Federalists believed in a strong Federal government; Washington and Adams were both Federalists. The Democratic-Republicans believed in a Republic guided by the voice of democracy. Remember a “Republic” is the form of democracy which we live under, and not just the name of a political party. Likewise, representative democracy is the manner in which we conduct our affairs within that Republic.

So, there were two main parties back then; divided as to how much power the Federal government should have over the lives of its citizens. In other words; nothing has changed with the system itself; only the players are different and call their parties by different names while still representing the same old interests.

By the 1840’s the Whig Party; formerly known at the time as Democrats, who had been around since the Revolution and were the real Conservatives of the era; got their first President elected. That was William Henry Harrison. He only lasted 32 days, dying of a cold he caught during his inauguration ceremony. However, he was succeeded by John Tyler, a former Democrat. The Whigs held sway through the Presidency of Franklin Pierce, and were largely responsible for some of the worst decisions leading up to the Civil War.

Now here’s where things get really interesting. Lincoln was the first Republican President. His role in the Civil War is widely known; although sometimes misunderstood. His position on slavery changed many times before he became President, and even after his election. He is seen as the “deliverer” to the newly freed slaves and the Republican Party became the party of the African-American until at least the Depression. But Lincoln was also the man who wanted to deport all the slaves to Jamaica and Liberia as a solution to the “negro problem.”

At the same time the Democrats were doing all they could to avoid a war with the South; even advocating the retention of slavery in the Southern states. These were the same men who were opposed to the 13^th Amendment freeing the slaves.

So, what we had; in essence; was a Democratic Party which was not at all in tune with the push for human rights; but rather pro States Rights. And; conversely; a Republican Party which was perceived as being the “Deliverer of Freedom” to the slaves and by extension the “Party of the People.” This has, of course, has been turned on its head by what happened at the Democratic Convention of 1948, but there are interesting things to note between the time of Lincoln and then.

Interestingly Lincoln’s Vice President; Andrew Johnson; was a Democrat who had been elected to the office on the National Union-Republic ticket. At the time we were still not yet confined to only 2 viable parties.

From 1869-1885 we had only Republican Presidents; along the line of Lincoln. These were the years of Reconstruction followed by the Gilded Age. Reconstruction was a repressive occupation of the Southern states; which came to embitter North against South to this present day; while the later Gilded Age represented the advent of the rewards of industrialization and the greed which those rewards brought to the rich and powerful. The Republicans; at this point; became the party of big business. The Democrats came to embrace the working class and the rise of the Unions.

The Republican run ended briefly to accommodate the election of Grover Cleveland in 1885. He was a Democrat. From this time forward there would never be anything but Republicans and Democrats running against one another for the office of President. It would be well to remember that there had been; as noted here earlier; a Democrat-Republican Party. Indeed our 3^rd through 8^th Presidents were from that Party. And there were some pretty great Presidents in that group.

Aside from Cleveland’s return to office in 1893; after having been defeated by William Harrison in 1889, which is the only time a former President has been re-elected to office; the Republicans held sway until President Wilson; a Democrat; came to D.C. in 1913. The first thing he did was to segregate the nation’s Capital. That’s right, D.C. was not segregated until 1913 and then by a Democrat!

After Wilson the mantle of leadership went back to the Republicans for the disastrous social policies of Prohibition, the reckless economic policies of the Roaring Twenties and the resultant Great Depression. In 1933 FDR came to D.C. as the first Democrat since Wilson and began the social programs which so many Americans rely upon today to make ends meet. And this is where the division between the two parties as we know them today begins to take place.

The Democrats had to find a way out of the Depression which had happened during the years of Republican leadership; which let big business run themselves. The New Deal programs; such as the NRA, WPA and all the rest were the country’s first attempts at large scale social programs to alleviate the hunger, homelessness and lack of education and job training which came in the wake of those failed Republican policies. The Republicans now became cast as the enemy of the working man and the party of the rich. Right or wrong, these labels would stick.

The only ones getting short changed by all of this were the nations African-Americans. The Party of Lincoln was the party which most blacks identified with due to Abraham Lincoln. That’s understandable. Regardless of the finer points involved in the validity of the Emancipation Proclamation, he was the man in charge when they received their freedom. And the Democrats had opposed the 13^th Amendment. It seemed like a no-brainer.

But in between the two World Wars, African –Americans expected more and began shifting their allegiance to the Democratic Party, which promised at least the hope of change. They had served honorably in 2 World Wars defending freedoms for others which they themselves did not have here at home. The time to change that had come. So, the nail was set in place; it just needed one more firm whack to drive it home for good.

That final whack came in 1948 at the Democratic National Convention when Harry Truman; who had succeeded President Roosevelt upon his death in 1945; came out with a Civil Rights platform for African-Americans. The Southern Democrats walked out and formed their own party. They even ran their own candidate; and predictably embarrassed themselves. After the election was over the leaders became some of the leading Republican Senators for the remainder of the 20^th century, most notably leading the opposition to the Civil rights legislation of the 1960’s and giving birth to the so-called Conservative movement in 1964 with Barry Goldwater as the first “Conservative” candidate for President.

The Democrats became even more progressive than they had been. This enabled deep divisions to develop within the party. And although they were able to successfully elect the first African-American Pesident; Barak Obama; to office in 2008, the Democrats then lost control of both the Congress and Senate within his first term.

The only point to be made here; if any at all; is that party allegiance; based on history; is suspect at best. It’s also interesting to note how much worse the gridlock in Washington became after the rise of the 2 party system we have today; which consists of Democrats and Republicans. Especially since at one time they were one and the same. That bit of history serves to underscore just how little choice we have today in electing our representatives. They are both different sides of the same coin. This goes a long way in explaining why nothing ever really changes.

"The Great Debaters" with Denzel Washington and Forest Whitaker, Jr. (2007)

Imagine being the man who trained some of the greatest orators of the civil rights era. That’s the story of Professor Melvin B. Tolson, faculty member of little Wiley College in Texas during the 1930’s. His debate team consisted of some of the brightest stars who would later inform the Civil Rights Movement.

Jurnee Smollett plays Samantha Booke; Nate Parker plays Henry Lowe; Denzel Whitaker plays James Farmer, Jr., and Jermaine Williams plays Hamilton Burgess. These four comprise the debate team assembled by professor Toland. Forest Whitaker, Jr. (no relation) plays the father of James Farmer, Sr. Those two are exceptional in their portrayal of the sometimes tense; but always loving; relationship between the two.

Tolson trains his young debaters by challenging them at every turn. He even has them train their voices so they can be heard distinctly and clearly. Using a rowboat as his lectern he has them say the same mantra over and over again for days, each time rowing a bit further from shore while exhorting the team to speak louder so that he can hear them.

As they grow in confidence they beat every team they encounter. The other teams are always African-American. They soon discover that the pressure is very different when they face white opponents. There is always the racial disparity to overcome, but they manage to remain undefeated, a fact which professor Tolson uses to procure the opportunity of a lifetime; to be the first African-American debate team to debate at Harvard.

While this entire story unfolds, young James Farmer, Jr. learns that Professor Tolson is working with the local farmers to form a union; a very dangerous practice even for white men back in those days. While the boy is intrigued with the prospect of Civil Rights, his father seems to lives in the shadow of fear. This confrontation between father and son is one of the most emotionally charged scenes in the film; eclipsing in some ways even the final debate sequence.

The whole film is done with attention to detail and the result is perfection. This is a film which you will sit through even in front of your own television, eschewing the usual snacks and breaks available only a room or so away. An excellent screenplay by Robert Eisele; from the original story by Jeffrey Porro; coupled with excellent direction by Denzel Washington, combine to make this film a modern classic.

An Image of Justice - Deaf, Dumb and Blind (1944)

They say that Justice is blind. That needs to be amended. At times, justice can be plain deaf and dumb. I don’t mean that as an affront to people who have difficulty with hearing and speaking. I mean it in the worst possible way - as in ignorance.

George Stinney, Jr. was 14 years old in March 1944 when he was arrested and charged with the murder of 2 white girls; Betty June Binnacker and Mary Emma Thames, aged 11 and 8 respectively. The girls had gone looking for wildflowers along the railroad tracks which divided the town of Alcolu, South Carolina by race and never made it home.  

During the subsequent search for the missing girls; which young Mr. Stinney participated in; he happened to mention that he had seen the girls earlier that day. He was immediately arrested and charged with their disappearance. When the bodies were found in a drainage culvert; bludgeoned to death; Stinney was charged with their murder.

Detectives; possibly the two in the photograph above; extracted a confession from the boy with the promise of ice cream. No legal representative was present when he allegedly confessed to the crime. To make matters even worse his parents were not permitted to see him between the time of his arrest in March and his execution in the electric chair that June. Even by the standards of the time, this was beyond the pale. That is, unless you were a 14 year old black kid in Alcolu, South Carolina in 1944.

George Stinney was 5’1” tall and weighed 95 pounds. They had to stack books on the seat of the electric chair in order to kill him. Kind of like a booster seat at the barber shop when I was a kid. That photo above was taken as Stinney, and a 21 year old named Bruce Hamilton, were being taken into the death house in Columbia, South Carolina for their executions.

Aside from Mr. Stinney’s diminutive stature the thing that most captures my attention are the two officers who are standing on either side of the boys. Those two are never named. I have looked for their names and come up empty. I’m sure that if I worked at it hard enough and long enough I could find out. They were, after all, the authority in the town. They had the power, and the license, to put people to death if they ran afoul of the law. These were the respectable ones

Here's Mr. Stinney's mug shot. It will give you a better idea of just how young he was. He was, truly, just a boy. There is no written record of his supposed confession. His trial lasted a mere hours. There was no appeal and he had no representation to speak of.

So, you have to wonder; most people take great pains to tell you that someone in their families have been in the news; especially when it's something historical. I’m sure those two officers names were in the paper that day. That begs the question of just why those two men are never named in the photograph anymore, and why no one claims them as their own. Which is all you need to know to understand just how wrong this was.

Note: I am not against the death penalty. I just think you should have to prove it first.

"Mandela - Long Walk to Freedom" with (2013)

No movie can ever effectively encompass the life of Nelson Mandela. There simply is not enough time to spend on any one portion of his life, and 2 hours is hardly representative of all which he accomplished in his struggle to free his country. That said; this movie shines brightly as a tribute to what one man will endure to breathe life into his dream of being free.

Beginning with memories gleaned from a childhood of tribal rituals, the young Mandela leaves home in the early 1940’s to seek his fortune. In a racially restricted environment which can only be called “Nazi-Lite”, he encounters all of the racial segregation of the Jim Crow south at the time. The only real difference between South Africa and the United States was that the Federal government in South Africa was part of the problem; unlike in America where the central government would eventually become an ally of the oppressed.

Mandela was a skilled legal representative for the poor and oppressed before he became involved in politics. As a matter of fact you could say the his advocacy for the poor was the very thing which made him hyper aware of the abuses heaped upon the African citizens in their own country by the 10% minority, which was composed of the descendants of the original British and Dutch colonists. Working with youth groups and teaching them the skill of boxing brought him into close everyday contact with the people he would someday inspire to take the freedom so long denied  them.

As Mandela became more involved in the political struggle he turned to violence as a means to an end. If the white rulers would not respect the rights due native African peoples, then the people would not recognize the government which so brutally oppressed them. This made Mandela extremely dangerous to the power structure. By 1964 he was granted “mercy” in a court case which gripped the world. That “mercy” consisted of a life sentence with no chance of parole. Moreover, he would serve that time, along with his co-defendants, on an island; basically exiled from his native soil.

The years rolled by, but Mr. Mandela didn't lose his edge; he simply changed directions. An early victory in prison came when he was able to confront the sadistic Commander of the island prison and demand; of all things; long pants for the prisoners. The reason for the request was simple; making prisoners wear short pants made them “boys” rather than men; by demanding long pants they were in effect taking back their manhood. This was the first step in the path of non-violence which changed Mr. Mandela’s life.

Naomie Harris is excellent in the role of Winnie Madikizela, who would later become his 2nd wife. The film does not flinch from showing her as becoming overly militant after her brutal treatment at the hands of her husband’s oppressors. It is highly doubtful that any marriage could have survived these years intact. And her emotional unraveling is yet another result of the inhumanity of the apartheid system which was still in place.

As the 1970’s came to a close, a movement was begun to free Nelson Mandela. That movement was worldwide. Due to the spotlight being shone on the racial inequalities of South Africa, Mr. Mandela was transferred to a prison on the mainland where he was allowed to see his wife for the first time in years and his teenage daughter for the first time.

By the time the 1980’s came to a close Mr. Mandela would be granted his freedom. But if President Botha; or later DeKlerk; thought that this would silence the force that had become Mandela, they were wrong. Instead, he used his freedom to begin the truth and reconciliation committees, which were set up to study the mistakes of the past in order to keep them from happening again. And when these committees were finished with their work a new political era was born in South Africa; and one of the first things to occur was the election of Nelson Mandela as President of the South African Republic.

The film is beautifully directed by Justin Chadwick, and the screenplay by William Nicholson stays true to the basic tenets of Mr. Mandela’s extraordinary autobiography. This is a film well worth seeing, made from a book well worth reading and a life well served.

  

"David Played a Harp" by Ralph W. Johnson (2000)

I live less than 20 minutes from the Main Street where this book takes place. I read it for the first time in 2000 when it was released. Mr. Johnson wrote the book in the 1970’s, and let the manuscript lay around for over 20 years before he decided, at the urging of friends and family, to publish it at the age of 96. And what a book it is.

It is the story of the old Jim Crow south and how the author, Ralph Johnson, managed to deal with the inequities of those times. Over the course of 40 years, in the midst of racial segregation, he was able; with great difficulty; to open, operate and maintain the area’s largest barber shop. It is also the story of how the misguided elite students and professors of Davidson College, helped to tear it all down with idealism at a time when the country was rife with racial division in the days before, and just after, the assassination of Martin Luther King.

Ralph Johnson was a victim of the Jim Crow era, but in a much different way than one usually thinks. He was not beaten, nor lynched. He was, instead, the unique victim of hostility from his own people; who saw his efforts at bettering himself as an affront to their own lack of initiative; and, at the same time, also the victim of the young white students and faculty at Davidson College, who looked to alleviate the racial discrimination in the town as a way to assuage their own guilt at having benefited from it.

Indeed, even as they were protesting the segregation in Mr. Johnson’s barber shop, they themselves were the employers of Negro laundry workers, janitors, and cooks on their own campus. These employees had no rights, no benefits and were paid substandard wages for the time. When they grew too old, or too sick, to work anymore, they were simply dismissed and could be seen wandering in rags, sometimes living with relatives who took them in, or else in camps in the local woods, living like tramps. There were no student protests about these unfortunate victims of Jim Crow from the students of Davidson College.

The book begins with Mr. Johnson’s childhood and his scant memories of his father. He recounts his own efforts to obtain an education, which was not possible in Davidson for a person of color at the time. By hard study through correspondence courses taken over many years, Mr. Johnson was able to earn a high school diploma, a college degree and even studied law. As a matter of fact, in 1937, just before the law regarding taking the Bar exam in North Carolina changed, he had been taking law courses in preparation to take the Bar. He was even offered a position with a locally prominent white attorney, but it was economically impossible for him to abandon the barber shop in order to do so.

Eventually he was able to move his shop to Main Street without causing too much backlash. Later, when moving his shop to its final location, he was able to buy a building at the Corner of Main and Depot Streets, which was unheard of at the time. There were several incidents of vandalism and even an attempt at arson on his home as a result of this, but Mr. Johnson, plagued by illness and anxiety, shouldered on and eventually had the best barbershop in the region, drawing customers from every nearby town. By state law he was not permitted to cut the hair of Negroes in his own shop, and even had to have his own hair cut there at night, with the shades drawn.

I moved to this area of North Carolina in 1998, two years before this book was released. I had become familiar with the Town of Davidson by that time. It is a beautiful college town, fully integrated and with a lively economy in spite of the superhighway which runs parallel to it by about 1 mile and has sucked the life out of most of the small towns it breezes through. A lot has changed in the years since Mr. Johnson wrote his story.

The building where Mr. Johnson ran his business is a bank now, which has changed hands over 3 times since we moved here. The author’s description of the town allows you to walk down Main Street and identify every building and what businesses used to occupy them. The steeple of the Church across the street from the old barber shop still stands on the grounds of Davidson College, and at certain times of the year, at certain hours of the afternoon, the sun casts the shadow of that cross over Mr. Johnson’s old barber shop, in the building he once owned. I think he would find some comfort in that.

Eddie Ray - "Against All Odds"

Eddie Ray is probably one of the least known, and most humble, of all the people involved in bringing R and B, and Rock and Roll records into the mainstream media. His career has taken him from the stockroom; filling orders at Aladdin Records for Leo and Eddie Mesner; and on into the boardrooms of major record companies during the last days of Jim Crow. And, if you listen to music of any genre, Eddie Ray has had a hand in bringing many of those artists and composers who created that music, into millions of homes.

Mr. Ray was appointed by President Reagan as a U.S. Copyright Commissioner to serve on the U.S. Copyright Royalty Tribunal during the early 1980’s. As the technology surrounding music changed, so did the way in which the artists needed to be compensated. Mr. Ray helped create copyright regulations which provided a substantial increase in royalty fees for the Artists and composers who created the music. The aim was to be fair to the listening public, the artist and the copyright users. This has not always been easy.

I am privileged to have had the chance to ask Mr. Ray a few questions about his remarkable career, spanning almost 7 decades! You can usually find him at the NC Music Hall of Fame, located in the old jailhouse in Kannapolis, North Carolina. In addition to overseeing the activities of the Hall of Fame, and attending to various Award Ceremonies, he has found the time to pen a memoir about his extraordinary life, both on, and off, the road. The book, titled “Against All Odds” is due out shortly, and will also explore the evolution of the process by which the artists receive their fair share of the profits, as well as the challenges of staying abreast of the newer technologies. Here are the questions, posed by my alter ego “RT” for Rooftop Reviews, followed by Mr. Ray's responses;

RT. What is your first memory of music? Was it in your home, or church? And did you have a radio, Victrola or an instrument in your home?

Eddie Ray: My first memory of music was in my home and to a lesser degree in churches. We always had a radio and victrola in our home and I constantly listened to all genres of music. However, the primary genres of music that were broadcasts on radio stations that we were able to receive at that time in the mountains of NC were Big Band, Country, and what I refer to as White Gospel/Sacred music. My mother and I would also listen every Sunday morning to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir from Salt Lake City and The Wings over Jordan Choir from a Black church in Cleveland, Ohio.

RT. What were your parents like? How did their relationship with you relate to your life in reference to perseverance and self-esteem, traveling in the Jim Crow South, and later navigating the white dominated corporate world?

Eddie Ray: Neither of my parents had a formal education beyond high school but both were highly intelligent and hard workers who under a severe racial discrimination and segregation system achieved a very successful life for themselves and their family. Perhaps even more importantly, they both possessed a high esteem of themselves and maintained a strong self confidence that they could succeed in spite of the racial restrictions and negative thoughts that others may have of them. All these extremely positive attitudes that they possessed were instilled in me and my siblings and we were constantly reminded that our ultimate fate was in our hands only.

RT. Does it astound you when you think of all the lives that your career has touched, from the artists to the listener? And are you cognizant of the impact which the music you helped to present had on society, and how that has affected the world today, from music to politics?

Eddie Ray: I am often asked if I am aware of the positive impact that I may have had on the lives of others. That is something that never crossed my mind during my career. I was only concerned with doing the best job that I could with every project that I undertook. That is what my parents had instilled in me. Also, in spite of whatever success I may have achieved in any of my projects, I was still searching for the REAL purpose of my life. Although, I always enjoyed whatever project that I accepted, I thought that there must be something more important that I should be doing with my life. However, as I grew older and finally began to listen to many people that thank me for the impact that my efforts have had upon their lives, I began to realize that perhaps I had being doing what I was destined to do. Yes, I do believe that the legendary musical artists and great music and songs with which I have been associated did and will continue to have a positive impacted upon politics, racial justice and society in general. I am honored that I had a small part in bringing these artists and their music to the public, but the credit should go to these wonderful artists and songwriters, and not to me.

RT. What do you think it is about you that draws people to you? What is the magic behind Eddie Ray?

Eddie Ray: If I do possess anything special that attracts people to me, I am not aware of what it is. I am basically an introvert and rather shy, especially when I meet new people. However, I cannot explain how I was so successful as a national sales and promotion person with major radio/television disc jockeys. Also, how I was also successful as an executive in negotiating agreements with major recording artists/songwriters and their agents/attorneys and later with US Congress members and national copyright Owners/Users as a US Commissioner of Copyrights and Chairman of the US Copyright Royalty Tribunal.

RT. Finally, how do you maintain your level of interest in all that you do? How would you like to be remembered; in terms of your accomplishments; or is there something more that you hope to leave behind as a statement of who you are?

Eddie Ray: I have never been concerned about if or how I may be remembered after my death. I have always been more concerned about establishing a productive and enjoyable relationship with people while we are alive. I have even asked my family not to have a funeral for me. I want my ashes to be spread in a particular place in the peaceful, blue waters of the Pacific Ocean.

For a short biography about Eddie Ray's remarkable career, please visit his Wikipedia page at; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Wiley_Ray 

And for a short video which outlines some of the subjects and artists which will be covered in the book, hit this You Tube link;

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ghgDezvvlQ4

For more information about the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame, and upcoming events, go to; http://northcarolinamusichalloffame.org/

The following short synopsis of the book was provided by Mr. Ray. And you can be sure that you will be reading my review here very shortly.

COMING SOON—THE REMARKABLE LIFE STORY OF EDDIE RAY, A PIONEER MUSIC MAN.
 
“An incredible journey from the racially segregated mountains of Western North Carolina as a youth; to the smoldering heat of tobacco fields as a farm laborer in Glastonbury, Connecticut; to the shipping department of Decca Records Distributing Company as a stock boy in Milwaukee, Wisconsin; to a skid-row hotel room in Los Angeles, California, working as a dish washer in a sea food restaurant; to a major music company executive in Hollywood and Beverly Hills, California as well as Memphis, Tennessee; to a founder and president of the Tennessee College of Recording Arts and Sciences in Memphis, Tennessee; to a Presidential Nomination and US Senate Ratification as a United States Commissioner for Copyrights in Washington, DC; to an Induction into the Music Hall of Fame in his home State of North Carolina.”

"Red Summer" by Cameron McWhirter

The summer of 1919 would become known as the Red Summer, not for the Communist scare sweeping the nation under the heel of the Palmer Act, but for the red blood of African-Americans, coast to coast, who were beaten, stabbed, shot and hung, from Connecticut to California.

Imagine coming home from war after having served your country and being denied the rights of a full citizen as a reward for your efforts. In the summer of 1919 African-American veterans of the First World War, during which they had shown supreme courage in some of the longest fighting of the war, earning more medals than their white counterparts, were faced with exactly that.

In the first part of the year, African-American troops returning from France marched up Fifth Avenue and through Harlem, with crowds, black and white, cheering all the way. Savoring the moment was a good idea, as the camaraderie wouldn't last long.

By July of 1919 the United States would be gripped by a wave of fear and paranoia. First there was the Red Scare engendered by the Communists, which prompted the infamous Red Act, which stifled political dissent and saw many Americans imprisoned for their belief in a different political system. On top of that there were the Unions, with their attendant violence, making their way across the land, further fueling the fears of political change.

But the straw that broke the camel's back was the expectation of thousands of African-American Veterans; men who had fought to preserve the system now under fire from the Unions and Communists; that they would be free at last from the yoke of Jim Crow laws, which had proliferated in the days after the Civil War. Alas, it was not to be. Instead, these brave men received some of the most brutal treatment in the history of the nation.

In many cases these men were victimized by the very soldiers that they had served with overseas. The white Veterans could not stand to see the African-American Veterans receive the same accolades as themselves for their service. This attitude, which begat the wholesale violence of that summer, was not confined to just the South, but spread like wildfire across the entire nation. Rumors and outright lies were the cause of most of the violence.

As Mayors and Governors attempted, in some cases, to quell the violence, politics entered the fray. These politicians, who wished to be re-elected needed to choose a side, and they did so quickly, mobilizing the local Police and National Guard units to quell the violence, mostly at the expense of the victims, who in many cases would not have the right to vote for almost another 50 years.

But something different was beginning to happen in America; African-Americans were starting to fight back. They had fought for the liberty of all Americans, including themselves. From this point on, there would be no turning back. The bloody summer of 1919 would give life to the Civil Rights Movement, and though it would take the better part of the 20th Century to accomplish the goals set forth by its members, the long march toward equality had begun in earnest.

Carefully researched, with 60 pages of notes on the sources used in writing this book, Mr. McWhirter has given us a complete and accurate picture of just what it took to spark the fire which would lead to the quest for racial equality in America.

"Touched by Fire" by James M. Perry

Wars have always given birth to future Presidents of the United States. Our first President was a General. The War of 1812 gave us two more military Presidents, as did the War with Mexico in the 1840's. The Civil War gave us five Presidents who had been "touched by fire." The Spanish-American War gave us one. The First World War gave us at least 2, and the Second World War gave us a string Presidents from Eisenhower through Ford. Almost half of our Presidents have been products of the military. But the Civil War gave us the most number of Presidents who had actually seen combat, in essence, "touched by fire." Their experiences in the war would color their leadership, as well as help to chart the future course of our nation.

Beginning in 1869, at age 46 years old, General Grant would become the youngest President elected up to that time. That record would not be broken until Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest President-elect at age 42, and that would not be surpassed until John Kennedy's election, at age 43, in 1960. (The discrepancy in who was actually elected at a younger age, versus being inaguarated, comes from the change in the date of inaguaration, which changed from March to January, in 1933 with the swearing in of Franklin Roosevelt.)

Grant was a natural choice for the office after Lincoln's Vice President had finished the slain President's term in 1868. Grant was, after all, the hero of the Civil War. He did, however, make a lousy President, and his administration was marked by scandal after scandal as he was manipulated by the Barons of the Gilded Age. Only Mark Twain, by assisting Grant in the writing of his memoirs, would save Grant from poverty. He died shortly after completing the book.

Grant was a product, like his nemesis General Lee, of West Point. He had failed at everything prior to that endeavor, and even in that he graduated at the bottom of his class. After the Mexican War he left the Army and tried his hand at everything imagineable, failing at them all. The outbreak of the Civil War brought him back into the Army, and with his daring tactics and agresssive leadership, he was able to prosecute the war to a speedy conclusion.

Grant was followed into office by Rutherford Hayes, who had served in the Civil War as a Major in the 23rd Ohio Regiment. These men were all volunteers, including an 18 year old Private named William McKinley. That he would actually form a bond with the future, and much older, Major Hayes, would seem unlikely, but is nonetheless true.

Major Hayes won the hearts of his men the day that the 23rd received their weapons. Due to the actions of President Buchanan's last Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, a Southerner, most of the modern weapons had been shipped South in the days leading up to the outbreak of the war, leaving the North short on modern rifles. The boys of the 23rd refused, at first, to accept the old weapons and were actually threatened with being shot for doing so. That order came from Lieutenant Colonel Matthews. Major Hayes took a different tact, going from tent to tent, lecturing the boys in a kindly way and reminding them of the lack of weaponry at the outbreak of the American Revolution, inspiring them to return to the arsenal and take up their arms. The 23rd would go on to extinguish itself in the West Virginia campaign.

The next, and third, President to spring from the Civil War was James Garfield. He was an inspired leader of men, and would go on to fight in the the Big Sandy campaign, which though crucial to the sucess of the war, gets surprisingly little note in the history books. The Big Sandy was critical due to the fact that the valley, and the river named for it, ran along the line between West Virginia, which was Union, and Kentucky, which was not officially a Confederate state, but so conflicted in it's loyalties, that it was essential that the Union maintain hold of it. And with the help of future President Garfield, it remained a part of the Union. Garfield's exploits in the Big Sandy made his future career. That he was only President for six months, dying at the hands of an assassin during his first year in office, in no way diminishes this accomplishment.

After Garfield there was a period of 8 years before another Civil War veteran was elected to the Presidency. This was Benjamin Harrison, who was the grandson of William Henry Harrison, who had also been a General in the Mexican War before he became President. That Benjamin Harrison would follow so closely in the career path of his grandfather was surprising, as prior to the war he had no political ambitions at all. His contribution to the war came during the infamous March to the Sea under General Sherman. He lead the 70th Indiana into battle in Northwestern Georgia, as well as the neighboring states of Tennessee and Alabama.

After Harrison's reign in the White House there was another 8 year spell between a Civil War Veteran becoming President. William McKilnley, who had entered the war as an 18 year old Private, would be the last of the Civil War Presidents. Elected 38 years after the war had ended, he presided over the nation in the middle years of "Jim Crow" laws down South. Like Garfield, he too was shot by an assassin. Present at both assassinations was President Lincoln's son Robert Todd Lincoln. It remains one of the most unusual facts of American history that he was present at the deaths of 3 American Presidents, including his father's.

This was a very insightful read, with much information about the battles in which each man made his mark. The battles fought, and sacrifices made, by these men, and the admiration of the men who served under them, paved the way for their eventual elections as President. And their experiences in that war would color their leadership in office, while shaping the nation in which we still live today.

"I Am a Fugitive From the Georgia Chain Gang" by Robert E. Burns

When Robert Burns mustered out of the Army in 1919 he was elated. He had no idea what lay in store for him after having volunteered to fight for his country. If he had, he probably would've stayed in France! This is the book that spawned so many movies, including the classic "I am a Fugitive From A Chain Gang", which starred Paul Muni. The whole layout of the film "Cool Hand Luke" with Paul Newman is here, as is the story outline for "The Defiant Ones", which starred Sidney Poitier and Tony Curtis.

Wandering about with no money, and with no job prospects, Mr. Burns found himself living the life of a tramp, or hobo. When he left for the war he was making $50 a week- when he returned he could only find work for 40 cents an hour, a whopping $17.50 per week. Finding himself down and out leaves him in despair. When approached by two men with the promise of a good job, he readily accepted the offer, not knowing the true nature of the work. It turned out to be a pawn shop robbery that netted them all of $5.80, as well as changing the course of Mr. Burns life forever. He was sentenced to 6 years on the Georgia Chain gang. This was in 1922. The chain gang system in Georgia, at the time, was set up as a contract system, whereby the County Commissioners oversaw the care, housing and feeding of the prisoners. It was a system rife with corruption and misery. It would be home to Mr. Burns for a year, until he made his escape.

When Mr. Burns made his first successful escape, he wound up in Chicago. Renting a room put him in contact with a landlady who was in search of a husband. At first Mr. Burns was was able to avoid the attentions of Emily, his landlady. But then she began to open, and read, his mail. Learning the true nature of his secret, she was able to blackmail him into marriage. This was in 1925, the same year in which Mr. Burns began "The Greater Chicago Magazine." He acted as it's editor. The magazine was a success and for a time life seemed to be going well. But things have a way of changing swiftly, especially for those who are compromised in some fashion.

By 1929, he met a woman with whom he really was in love, and so he asked his wife for a divorce. Emily granted him the divorce, even as she was sending a letter to the State of Georgia, turning him in. Georgia sent 2 men to take him back, and Mr. Burns fought the extradition in court.

On May 23rd, 1929, Judge David, who presided over the Habeas Corpus hearing, refused to grant the extradition. He also delivered a scathing indictment of the Georgia penal system, stating; "Georgia- the home and birthplace of that vicious organization, the Ku Klux Klan. Where they sell the water of the Chattahoochee River at five dollars per gallon to baptize the ignorant and illiterate that they may be initiated into the wonders of the Klan, and so continue their persecution of the Jew, the Catholic, and the Negro; becoming acquainted with the fine art of lynching and midnight beatings and terrorism. It seems to me that Georgia in this case does not seek justice, but vengeance."

This was the beginning of a legal battle that would see Mr. Burns returned to the Georgia chain gang, under a false promise that he would serve only 90 days in a trustee's position. At the conclusion of that period, he was to be freed. Naively, he accepted this offer. What followed are several years of legal wrangling, during which time Mr. Burns was returned to the Chain Gang, and forced to once again make his escape.

Mr. Burns, who, incidentally was Jewish, and born in Brooklyn, wrote the book while hiding out in New Jersey during 1931. In 1932 Georgia tried once again to extradite him, and this time the State of New Jersey outright refused. This was also the year in which the book was published and released as a film. Public sentiment was clearly on Mr. Burns side. In 1945 the Governor of Georgia, Ellis Arnall, finally pardoned him.

An extraordinary look at justice in America during the years between the First World War and the end of the Jim Crow Era, this book chronicles the journey of Mr. Burns, as he attempts to navigate his way to freedom. That one man could withstand 2 decades of such uncertainty, while maintaining some sense of humanity, is simply astonishing.

"Rising Road" by Sharon Davies

America at the close of World War One was a diverse mixture of nationalities and religions. By the early 1920’s the Ku Klux Klan had re-organized and begun a campaign of xenophobia and hatred that spread across the land. At the same time there was a growing Socialist movement involved in labor organization. All this served to pit one American against another, either along the lines of religion or race, politics or money.

Beneath the emerging prosperity there was a growing discontent and intolerance for views that differed from ones own. By 1925 the Klan was marching in Washington, DC, unopposed, down Pennsylvania Avenue and past the White House.

Catholicism was under severe attack. Its adherents were likened to “cross kissers” and “papists.” Into this seething cauldron that was America in the summer of 1921, two people married. This seemingly innocent event would turn into a sensational murder trial involving the girl’s father, Edwin Stephenson,(a former barber turned lay minister)Reverend James Coyle,(the local Catholic Priest) and Hugo Black,(a KKK sympathizer who would go on to become a Supreme Court Justice.)

Ms. Davies has done the seemingly impossible with this book. She has at once presented us with a true life murder-mystery, as well as a complete and accurate overview of the social issues of the time. No easy task.

The two lovers who bought about this commotion are of great interest. The girl, Ruth Stephenson, a Protestant,who is fascinated by the Catholic Church, meets Pedro Gussman at the age of 13 when he is doing some work at her family's home. He is a practicing Catholic from Puerto Rico. He is 24 years older. This is a doomed relationship from the start. The three strikes of race, religion and age make it imposssible for the couple to begin dating a few years after they meet.

Added to this combustible mix is Mr. Stephenson's lack of work as a barber. After accidentally shooting himself in the foot he can no longer stand for long periods of time. He becomes a Protestant lay preacher. Birmingham was a thriving town where many runaways went to get married in civil ceremonies. Mr. Stephenson takes to wandering the steps of the court house in an effort to seek out and marry these young wayward couples in the eyes of God. This effort is frowned upon by the Reverend Coyle, who feels not only that his church is being cheated of the revenue afforded by these marraiges, but also that these marraiges are not valid in the eyes of God.

Ruth's growing relationship with Pedro only fuels her passion for the rituals of his Catholicism and she decides to convert and marry him in the Catholic Church. She is 18 and does not need, nor does she seek, her parents consent. This enrages Mr. Stephenson to the point of confronting Reverend Coyle on the porch of his rectory. What happens there triggers this sensational trial for the Reverends' murder.

There is no doubt that Mr. Stephenson did it, there were witnesses to the act. The trial, instead turns on the "why" behind the murder. Was Ruth brainwashed into becoming Catholic? Aren't Puerto Ricans merely light skinned blacks, as claimed by future Justice Black? And therefore not entitled to marrying outside of their race? The fact that Hugo Black would go on to become such a stalwart advocate of Civil Rights only makes the book more interesting.

The motivations of all the characters involved is mind boggling. Every one has an ulterior motive for the verdict they wish to see. Race, religion and politics, a volatile mixture back in the 1920's, has not changed all that much. The racists seek to keep another group down socially, while the religious crowd tries to force their particular God down your throat and the politicians attempt to walk a fine line, attempting to satisfy us all, on their way to higher office at our expense. One of the arguments presented by the Defense touches upon what would later become known as the "Miranda Decision", in which a defendants right to counsel is affirmed by the arresting authority. This was not done in Mr. Stephenson's case, and Hugo Black skillfully uses this argument to cast doubt upon the evidence for the Prosecution, which included Mr. Stephenson's confession on the night of the murder.

Mr. Stephenson is freed by a jury that takes it's course from the Bible, rather than enacted law. Mrs. Gussman never reconciles with her parents, citing "years of abuse" as her reason. This is a riveting book with applications to today's world and our continued division over these same issues.